


. 









<yQL 



ENGLISH 



GRAMMAR 



AND 



HOW TO. TEACH IT, 



Designed as a Text-Book for Common Schools, and fob 

the Primary, Intermediate, and Grambiar 

Departments of Graded Schools, 



by 



HEKEY L. BOLTWOOD, A. M, 

MASTER OF PRINCETON HIGH SCHOOL. 



CHICAGO: 
Geo. Sherwood & Co 



p^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^OI 



# 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.! 



hag. 



.glit JJo. 




| UNITED STATES OF AmMiCA. { 



/ . -2. . 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



AND 



HOW TO TEACH IT; 



DESIGNED AS A TEXT-BOOK FOR COMMON SCHOOLS, AND 
FOR THE PRIMARY, INTERMEDIATE, AND GRAMMAR 
DEPARTMENTS OF GRADED SCHOOLS. 



/ 



BY 



HENRY LI BOLTWOOD, A.M., 

MASTER OP PRINCETON HIGH SCHOOL. 



. 



^CHICAGO: 

GEO. SHERWOOD & CO 

— e^ 



/r? 



f £n 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871* 

BY GEO. SHERWOOD & CO., 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



printed by 

Case, Lockwood & Brainard, 

hartford, conn. 



PEEFAOE. 



The principal reason for adding another Grammar to the 
many already in print, is the fact that another is needed. 
In no other branch of Common School study does the labor 
expended appear to produce so little in the way of results. 
It has even been discussed in State Teachers' Associations, 
whether the study of Grammar is productive of any good. 
And, since the facts pertaining to language are certainly 
worth knowing, the fair conclusion is, that the} r can be pre- 
sented in some form better suited to the necessities of teach- 
ers and pupils than any which has yet been tried. 

This volume presents a method of teaching Grammar 
which has been carefully tested iit the school-room. The 
book contains a selection of the facts pertaining to language. 
In teaching for many years, one learns that certain truths 
are to be retained firmly, certain others to be read, or used 
as illustrations, and others used as handles by which to grasp 
and hold other facts. In attempting to make their school 
grammars complete treatises upon the study of language, 
grammarians have put so much into them that they have 
bewildered and disgusted the pupil. A grammar should be 
judged by what it leaves out as much as by what it con- 
tains. 

Instead of commencing with letters, syllables, and words, 
the pupil, in this book, is made to commence with the sen- 
tence as the basis of grammatical instruction. In other 
words, the idea is that the child shall begin to study language 
just as he receives and learns it, embodied in sentences. It 
is more important that the child should put words together 
correctly, and understand them when combined, than that 
he should be able to name properties and attributes by 
formal names, or give formal definitions. Any one who has 



4 ' PREFACE. 

ever attempted to make perfect and concise definitions of 
grammatical terms, must feel that children ought not to be 
taught terms which are beyond their comprehension, while 
the proper use of language is neglected. 

So far as possible, throughout the Introductory Grammar, 
the fact has been presented and recognized before the name 
is given. Whenever a new fact is presented, the pupil is 
expected to fix it in memory by repeated writing, and by 
recognizing it in sentences taken from readers or other books 
familiar to him. If these exercises are faithfully performed, 
the ground passed over will be permanently held ; otherwise, 
it will be lost. By repeated writing after correct models, 
habits of accurate composition are fixed. 

It is absurd to say that grammar, as generally taught, is 
" the art of speaking and writing the language correctly." 
Long after the habits of speech are indelibly fixed, a few 
months are generally given to the study of dry details, im- 
perfectly understood, seldom or never applied, and soon for- 
gotten. Such study makes no more impression on bad habits 
of speech than dew does on a rock. 

In preparing this book, the necessities of teachers have 
been kept in mind. Many who teach have had limited ad- 
vantages, and cannot teach well because they have never 
been well taught themselves. Some have no other way of 
teaching than to follow the text-book, question by question. 
This book is intended to help those who are willing to be 
helped, and to present a plan which, even when followed 
blindly, will do less mischief and secure more good than the 
common methods. Were it likely that none but well-quali- 
fied teachers would be required to use this book, it would 
have been shortened. But knowing how many will only 
u follow the book/' the design has been to make a book 
which County Superintendents, School Directors, or Princi- 
pals of Graded Schools can safely put into the hands of 
young, inexperienced, or imperfectly educated teachers, and 
say, " Follow this book exactly." 

A Primary, Intermediate, and Common School Grammar 
is presented in this volume. It is intended to include all 
which is preliminary to the High School Course of Graded 
Schools, and all which can properly be called Common-School 



PREFACE. 5 

Grammar. The Primary Grammar is designed as a teach- 
er's guide in developing language by object-lessons, and is 
not intended as a text-book for children. The Intermediate 
develops a plan for teaching language to pupils who are able 
to use a simple text-book. The Common School Grammar 
reviews the Intermediate, and develops the plan already be- 
gun, with additional facts and principles. Little space is 
given to the sounds of letters, because all good Readers and 
Spellers now in use contain all that the pupil needs. The 
rules of spelling are also referred to the Appendix, not as 
unimportant, but as coming after the study of Prefixes and 
Suffixes. 

The common terms of school grammars have been re- 
tained as far as possible, so that pupils trained in this book 
may understand the common nomenclature of grammarians. 
New names have never been used simply to give an impres- 
sion of originality. 

Special attention is invited to the following points in the 
presentation of topics : 

The pupil commences with the sentence. 

Composition precedes analysis. 

The study of language begins with the primary school, or 
just as soon as the child can put ideas and words together. 

Letter Writing is introduced in the Intermediate part and 
made prominent, instead of being entirely omitted, or put 
into Higher Grammar. 

Attention is also invited to the following topics : 

Gender, Case, Transitive Verbs, Conjugation, use of the 
Verb to be y use of what, the distinction of the verbal term 
ending in ing into Gerund, Verbal Adjective, and Participle, 
the treatment of Auxiliary Verbs, the rejection of Mode as 
a Property of the Verb, and the absence of formal Rules of 
Syntax. 

The study of Synonyms, and the Derivation of Surnames 
in the Appendix are also commended to attention. 

Many books and authors have been consulted in the pre- 
paration of this book. Goold Brown, Fowler, Bingham, 
Marsh, Howland, Greene, Mulligan, and Richard Grant 
White have been used ; besides a large number of othei au* 
thors. Dr. Samuel Willard has rendered special and valua- 
ble assistance. 



6 PREFACE. 

Though only a single name appears on the title page, the 
idea of the book was suggested by Jerome Allen, A.M., of 
Monticello, Iowa, who also shared in its preparation through 
the Intermediate part. His other engagements preventing 
further co-operation, he is in no way responsible for the third 
or Common School part. 

Princeton, III., June, 1869. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

The necessity for a new edition gives opportunity for a 
revision of the book. No essential change has been made in 
the plan of the work, but more exercises have been intro 
duced, and some few paragraphs have been changed. The 
author is disposed to insist more strongly than ever that a 
thorough drill in language lessons, accompanied by constant 
practice in sentence writing, is a necessary prerequisite to 
the successful study of the language, and is worth far more 
to the pupil than any memorizing of rules, or than the com- 
mon drill in sentence analysis, which does little to make ac- 
curate speakers and writers. 

Princeton, III., Nov. 10, 1871. 



Peimaet Grammar 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

It is useless to give young children a text-book on gram- 
mar, expecting them to profit by its study- They must learn 
to use language by imitation, and by oral teaching. The 
young pupil should first receive from the teacher correct and 
simple forms of speech, and then be trained to such forms 
alone. It is not necessary that a single technical term be 
used, nor that the instructions given be called lessons in 
grammar. 

The use of language should be taught in every lesson. It 
should be the daily study of the primary teacher to train 
every child in correct speaking. It is a common mistake to 
suppose that a grammar class is the only place where the 
proper use of words can be taught. A teacher should no 
more permit a pupil to speak incorrectly, than to count, or to 
spell incorrectly. Of course, the teacher's own speech should 
be a model for his pupils, The presentation of correct 
models, however, will not be enough. Most pupils bring to 
the school-room bad habits acquired at home. These the 
teacher must break up. Nothing but patient effort will se- 
cure this result. The evil habits of years, strengthened by 
daily home example, will not yield to one suggestion, nor to 
ten. 

It is related that the mother of the Wesleys, in answer to 
her husband's impatient remonstrance, " Why will you teach 

(7) 



8 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

that dull boy the same thing twenty times over ?" quietly 
replied, " Because, Mr. Wesley, nineteen times will not do." 
The twentieth time fixed the fact forever. Had she stopped 
at nineteen, she might have lost all her pains. The little 
child, whose habits are forming, claims more time, more pa- 
tience, and more thorough teaching than the older pupil, who 
is better qualified to think for himself. 

In teaching language, the instructor should follow closely 
the order in which the child acquires words, and their uses. 
Objects are first learned, then their names, then their proper- 
ties and uses. Therefore the names, properties, and uses of 
common things are the best lessons for primary scholars. 
Examples of simple object-lessons are here given, to show 
how the use of language should be taught in connection with 
other teaching. 

NAMES OP THINGS. 

Let the teacher, standing at the board, ask the pupils to 
name all the objects which they see in the school-room. These 
names, written or printed on the board, or on the slate, fur- 
nish the very best of spelling-lessons. The proper form and 
size of letters, and the neat arrangement of words, must be 
attended to by the teacher. In collecting and writing these 
names, the children are profitably employed, their powers 
of observation are stimulated, and great emulation can be 
excited by commending those who make the longest lists, and 
show the best work. Few in our schools will be likely to 
name all the objects in the rooms ; at least, to name all their 
parts. To name correctly all the parts of a pocket-knife, of 
a door, or of a window, is beyond the attainment of most 
pupils. Names should never be given by the teacher, until 
the pupils have really labored to obtain them for themselves. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^ 

To illustrate this exercise, a list is given of the names 
which may be derived from a common pocket-knife : 

handle, blade, edge, point, 

back, notch, shank, rivet, 

spring, cap, plate, iron, 

steel, wood, brass. 

The names, when obtained, should be often repeated, and 
made familiar by pointing out the object, while giving its 
name. Thus, taking the knife in hand, the pupil should 
say " This is a knife." " This is the point of the knife ;" 
and so through the list. Do not be satisfied till the pupils 
can go through all the names for themselves, fluently and 
correctly. 

Always require the names to be written. Look closely to 
the neatness of every exercise, and to the spelling of every 
word. Require daily exercises at the blackboard,* and train 
the class to notice, and to correct mistakes. 

Similar lessons, designed principally to develop the per- 
ceptive faculties, may be given on the following subjects : 

Names of things which grow ; which we eat ; things made 
of iron ; of wood ; of leather ; of ivory ; things used in a 
house ; in making a house ; things found in a store ; names 
of birds ; of four-footed animals ; first names of all the boys 
in the school ; of all the girls in the school ; last names of all 
the pupils in school ; names of carpenter's tools ; of farming- 
tools and machines ; of flowers ; of trees. 



* If the teacher have no blackboard, and the school authorities will 
not furnish one, common green curtain paper, pasted on the wall, will 
make an excellent substitute, which will bear the crayon for several 
weeks. 



10 



PRIMARY COURSE, 



Name the parts of the following things 



tree, 


body, 


door, 


reaper, 


room, 


house, 


window, 


ship, 


chair, 


watch, 


book, 


clock, 


hand, 


bird, 


head, 


stove, 


house, 


wagon, 


year, 


table. 



The teacher may add to this list names of any objects with 
which the pupils are familiar. 



ACTIONS OF THINGS. 

The child's attention is first attracted to living objects. 
Next to the perception of the thing comes the perception of 
that which the thing does. Taking the names of familiar 
animals and things, the teacher asks what each does. To 
the question, "What does the dog do?" the children may 
answer, " The dog runs, barks, bites, growls, jumps, plays, 
hunts, etc. ■ All answers should be written in full. Thus : 
The dog runs ; the dog hunts. Insist that every sentence 
should begin with a capital letter and end with a period. 

In like manner let the teacher inquire about the 

bird, mouse, squirrel, horse, 

cat, boy, hen, . sheep. 

Or, of things without life ; let the teacher ask, What does 
the sun do? etc. 

fire, wind, 



sun, 
saw, 



ram, 



knife. 



gun, pm, 

Let the pupils be urged and encouraged to give as many 
actions as possible. Then let them group actions which are 
related to each other. Thus : The horse walks, trots, paces, 
canters, gallops. Let the pupils tell the difference between 
these actions. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 

Naming the common animals, let the pupils tell ivhat sound 
aach makes ; thus : The horse neighs ; the dog howls ; the 
^at mews ; etc. 

Name the different trades and occupations of men, and 
tell what each does. 

Thus : the farmer plows ; the merchant trades ; the black- 
smith hammers ; the carpenter saws. 

Tell what things 

run, eat, sleep, jump, 

grow, work, play, swim. 

Such exercises as these may be almost indefinitely extended 
and varied. There is little danger of spending too much 
time on this drill. The teacher's skill is exhibited in mak- 
ing the pupils think for themselves. Neither interest nor 
profit is secured when the pupils are taught to repeat, like 
parrots, words which they do not comprehend. 

PROPERTIES OF THINGS. 

Let the teacher show the pupils some familiar object, as 
an apple, a rose, a crayon, a pencil, asking them to look at 
it carefully. Then, removing it from sight, ask the class to 
tell something about it, thus : 

The apple is large, round, red, nice. The pencil is long, 
round, black, hard, smooth. 

Take in the same way the following : 

knife, coin, slate, book, 

rubber, ruler, glass, water. 

First write the name of the object at the head of a column, 
and under the name its properties. Then let sentences be 
written like the following : 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The apple is large. The clear glass is brittle. 

The pencil is black. The soft rubber is square. 

The rose is pretty. The red apple is round and 

The teacher showed us a red ripe. 

apple. The black pencil is long and 

The teacher had a large book. smooth. 

The teacher had a white cray- The white rose is soft and 

on. pretty. 
The long ruler is black. 

Let many sentences be composed and written after these 
models, until the obvious properties of common things are 
very familiar, and are thoroughly understood. 

Require the names that denote color ; as, red, blue. 

Require the names that denote shape ; as, square, round. 

Require the names that denote size ; as, little, large. 

Let every word be used by the pupil in a sentence. If 
you ask, " Of what color is the rose ?" do not accept red 
as an answer, but require the sentence, The rose is red. If 
you ask the shape of an apple, do not accept round as an 
answer, but require the sentence, The apple is round. In- 
sist on this in every school exercise. 

USES OF THINGS. 

Taking some familiar thing, as a pencil, the teacher asks 
its uses. The various answers given, to mark, to write with, 
to make letters, etc., may be made into sentences after the fol- 
lowing models : 

1. The pencil is used for writing. 

2. The pencil is used to mark with. 

3. The pencil is useful for marking. 

Inquire the uses of the following things : 

ink, paper, wood, coal, 

water, knife, cloth, leather, 

fire, light, book, spade» 



PRIMARY COURSE. 13 

Let each answer be a complete sentence. 

Require the names of Require the names of 

things good to eat ; things useful in the house ; 

things useful to wear ; things useful in the school ; 

things used in building ; things useful to the farmer. 

Make a sentence with each of these names, thus : 
Wheat is good to eat. 
Cloth is useful to wear. 
Mortar is used in building. 

This exercise can be indefinitely extended. 

OBJECTS AND QUALITIES OF ACTIONS. 

After learning the name of the action, the child soon learns 
what limits the action, and how, when, where, and why the 
action is performed. The words which he uses to express 
these facts may be developed by question and answer, thus : 

The bird sings a song. 

What does the bird sing ? The bird sings a song. 

How does the bird sing? The bird sings sweetly.' 

When does the bird sing ? The bird sings in the morning. 

Where does the bird sing ? The bird sings in the meadow. 

Why does the bird sing ? The bird sings because it is 
happy. 

In the same manner develop the following : 

The man eats ; the cooper makes ; the 

merchant sells ; Mr. Brown buys . 

(Teach the pupils the difference between whom and what) 

Write under the word works words that show how work 
is done. 

Write words that show when any thing is done. 

Write words that show where any thing isjdone. 

Write words that show why any thing is done. 

Write words that show with what any thing is done. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Put each of these words into some sentence. 

Put into one sentence words that show when and where, 
thus, He works in his shop in the morning. 

Put into one sentence words that show how and why ; thus, 
The bird flies swiftly because it is frightened. 

An exercise similar to the following should often be re- 
quired of all the pupils : 

ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISE. 

What is the name of this ? It is a gun. 

What is it made of? It is made of wood and iron, some- 
times, in part, of brass and silver. 

Name its parts. Its parts are the stock, lock, barrel, ram- 
rod, hammer, tube, sight, muzzle, breech, butt, etc. 
. What is its color ? It is brown. 

What is its surface and shape ? It is smooth, long, and 
slender, and the barrel is hollow. 

What is it used for ? It is used to shoot game, to fire at 
a mark, and to kill men with in war. 

After such an exercise, the pupil should be required to 
describe the thing in his own words, without any suggestions 
from the teacher, A child might thus describe a pencil : 

This is called a lead-pencil. It is made of wood and black- 
lead. Its parts are, the head, the wood, the lead, the tip and 
the point. Its color is black. Its surface is smooth. Its 
shape is round, long, and slender. It is used for marking on 
paper. 

The above exercise is particularly valuable. The power 
of telling connectedly what one knows is most desirable. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES AND SUGGESTIONS. 

After every lesson, require the pupils to give its substance 
in their own words. Question minutely on every part, and 



PRIMARY COURSE. 15 

see that every word is understood, and its spelling learned. 
To vary the exercise, read a simple story to your class, and 
require them to repeat it in their own words. Then require 
it to be written by each pupil, and to be read aloud. This 
exercise invariably interests, it calls out the power of expres- 
sion, it imparts self-confidence, disciplines the memory, leads 
the pupils to notice one another's omissions and mistakes, 
and gives the teacher opportunity to make efficient correc - 
tions. 

The habitual vulgarisms of speech must not be tolerated. 
If an incorrect expression is used, ask the class if it be right, 
and let them, if possible, correct themselves. If they fail to 
do it, the teacher must give the correct form. The common 
errors of* speech maybe entirely banished from the school by 
patient effort. Good-humored ridicule is often successful in 
overcoming such evil habits. 

The above are given as hints in regard to the manner of 
taking up the study of language along with other things. 
The teacher's success will depend upon her own interest and 
patience. Frequent reviews #re absolutely necessary. The 
more frequent the review, the more rapid the progress. Such 
lessons as the above should be given for years before the 
pupil studies a text-book on grammar. Correct habits of 
thinking and composing may be acquired unconsciously, and 
without formal study. Writing of sentences must be insisted 
on. Punctuation and the use of • capitals are best taught to 
young children by making them observe the sentences found 
in their books. It is a profitable exercise to require exact 
copies of given sentences, or paragraphs. Accustom pupils 
in their recitations to write on the board whatever they are 
required to memorize. Rules in arithmetic, and definitions 
of all kinds, are good examples for practice. This trains the 
memory and forms the habit of close observation. Ko pupil 
will copy accurately without considerable practice. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The correct meaning of words is also best taught by the 
plan here given. Such common expressions as awful nice, 
dreadful pretty, monstrous small, live and thrive, because no 
one takes pains to teach the child what these large adjectives 
mean. 

Many expedients for enlarging the child's stock of words, 
and for teaching their correct use, will readily suggest them- 
selves to the teacher who desires to wake up mind, and who 
dares drop text-books, and talk to children of things which 
interest them, and are understood by them. A leaf, a flower, 
a bird, may be a better text-book for the child than a speller 
or reader can possibly be. 

Be careful not to make the exercises too long. Do not 
try to make too many points at once, and do not expect that 
a child will compose in language which is above his compre- 
hension. 



Intekmediate Grammar 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

The title Intermediate is given to this part, because the 
instruction here indicated should follow a thorough drill upon 
the plan laid down in the Primary course, and precede the 
Common School Course. Having attained to a tolerable 
readiness in combining words into sentences, the pupil w 
now required to separate into parts, name parts, notice rela 
tions, and divide words into classes. If pupils have not had 
the preliminary drill required, the teacher should proceed 
slowly, giving prominence to the composition of simple sen- 
tences, until the pupil forms them with ease and accuracy. 

It is impossible to say at what age this course should be 
commenced- The average pupil of ten years of age can 
easily learn any thing given here. And, certainly, pupils at 
that age should give as much time to the acquisition of their 
own language as to any other study of the common school. 

This part contains the common forms and simple construc- 
tions of the language. The analysis of the simple sentence 
is given, without any attempt to enlarge upon irregular, anom- 
alous, or intricate constructions. The technical terms of 
grammar are used as little as possible. The principle of in- 
flection is just mentioned, that the pupil may be led on to 
notice for himself how and why words are changed in form. 
Case is not developed, except by noticing the Possessive. 
Rules of Syntax are not laid down, because they are not 

needed by the child. The definitions given are not presented 

(17) 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as complete, and beyond criticism, but as such as a child can 
comprehend and use. 

Practical Grammar deals only with the sentence, and the 
use of a word in a sentence is the only means of classifying 
it. The common order of topics in grammar reverses the 
order of nature. The child naturally begins with wo ids in 
groups, or sentences, then gives attention to single words, and 
learns the elements of words last. One who knows nothing 
of the parts of speech, or of the rules of Syntax, may yet use 
words accurately. There is nothing in a word which infalli- 
bly indicates its part of speech. This must be determined 
by its use in a sentence. 

Words and things are so frequently confounded that special 
pains must be taken to make their distinction plain. Instead 
of teaching the pupil to say, " John is a noun," teach him to 
say " The word John," recognizing that the word is only 
the sign of the thing. Tins may seem trivial, but it is im- 
portant. 

Let pupils, on commencing this part of grammar, write 
every sentence required, understand and spell correctly every 
word employed, fix every definition and principle, and review 
frequently. Teachers will observe that this plan requires 
the pupils to preserve their written work. In no other way 
can the reviews, which are absolutely necessary, be secured. 
Each pupil should have a blank-book, containing at least a 
quire of letter paper, and the teacher should take great care 
that the books be written neatly and kept clean. Sentence 
writing accomplishes nothing unless the work is done well. 
An ill-written exercise, uncorrected by the teacher, does 
nothing for the pupil's education. All errors made should 
be pointed out, and the same exercise repeated, if need be, 
until it is generally correct. If this makes slow progress, it 
secures good results. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. ' 19 

Although the book is divided into lessons, the teacher must 
not let this division affect the assigning of class work. A 
single paragraph may contain a week's work. The teacher 
can best judge of the proper rate of progress. 

Teachers will do their pupils a lasting service, and much 
to help them on in their study of language, by inducing them 
to obtain, and by teaching them to use, the bsst dictionary 
within their means. No one can expect to become very ac- 
curate in the use of words without daily study of the diction - 
ary. It is well to require pupils to put the words which 
they define nuo sentences, to be .sure that they are under- 
stood. 

LESSON I. 

THE ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 

§ 1. Fire burns. 

What is said of fire ? What does fire do ? What burns ? 
About what are we talking? 

That of which something is said is called a 
Subject, 

We have said something about fire ; and, therefore, fire is 
a subject. 

John reads. 

Of whom is something said ? What is the»subject ? What 
is said of the subject ? 

That ivliich is said of the subject is called the 
Predicate. 

The subject, with that which is said of the sub- 
ject, is called a Sentence. 

§ 2. We tell others our thoughts by Words. 
A thought put into words becomes a sentence. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The words which we use are called our lan- 
guage. They are signs of ideas. If one says to 
you, "I have a horse in my barn" the words 
horse and bam make you think of some horse 
and some barn, even if you do not see them, 
and you make a sort of picture of them in your 
mind. The words make you think of this pic- 
ture. 

Let the teacher illustrate b.y talking of something which the pupils 
have never seen ; as, for example, a palm-tree, and having described 
it carefully, ask them to think exactly how it looks, urging them to 
form a definite mental picture. Then explain to them that the word 
palm-tree makes them think, not of the real tree, but of their idea or 
picture of the tree. 

The wind blows. 

Is this a sentence ? Why ? What is its subject ? What 
is its predicate ? 

Write ten short sentences. Name the subject of each. 
Name the predicates. Tell why each is a sentence. 

§ 3. Studies boy good the well. 

Do these words make sense ? Why not. Put the words 
together so that they make sense. What is the subject of 
the sentence which you have made ? 

My runs horse. 

Torn your is book. 

Scholars lessons their study should. 

Colt sorrel the running was. 

Praised good are boys. 

Finished large is house the. 

Squirrel trees little the climbs. 

Why do not these groups of words just given make sense ? 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 21 

Make them into sentences, and name the subjects and the 
predicates. 

Notice that the order of words has a great deal to do with 
their meaning. 

Which comes first in the sentence, the subject or the 
predicate ? 

Pupils should not be taught at first that either subject or predicate 
is limited to a single word. The whole subject and the whole predicate 
are recognized first. Let the children say of the first of the above sen- 
tences, " The subject is The good boy ; the predicate is Studies well. 

* § 4. Point out the subjects and predicates of 
the following sentences : 

The girl was in the garden. 

My horse was trotting. 

The boys are playing base-ball. 

General Grant was chosen President. 

Good scholars will be obedient. 

Chicago is a beautiful city. 

Helen's book is in her hand. 

The beautiful house was burned down. 

§ 5. The subject and the predicate are called 
the Elements of the" sentence. 

Pointing out the elements of the sentence is 
called Analysts. 

Analyze the sentences given above after the following 
model : 

That large tree was blown down. 

These words are a subject and something said about a sub- 
ject, and are, therefore, a sentence. That large tree is that 
of which something is said, and is, therefore, the subject. 
Was blown down is that which is said of the subject, and, 
therefore, was blown down is the predicate. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Notice that either the subject or the predicate 
is often made up of several words. 

Copy from your Reader ten short sentences. Notice that 
each sentence begins with a capital letter. Notice also the 
mark at the end of each sentence. Analyze these sentences. 

LESSON II. 

CLASSES OF WORDS. 

§ 6. Words are divided into different classes, 
as the pupils in a school are divided into classes. 
Scholars are classified by their studies. Words 
are classified by their use. The classes of words 
are called Fart§ of 8peee!a. 

Names of objects are called Moeiis. 

Point out the nouns, or name-words in the sentences which 
you have written, thus : 

Dog is the name of something ; therefore, the word dog 
is a noun. 

Point out ten nouns in your geography. Tell w 7 hy each 
is a noun. 

Write ten sentences, each containing two nouns. Analyze 
each sentence. 

§ 8. Words lohich are used to assert something 
of a subject are calledHevhs. 

Assert means nearly the same as say or tell. 
The predicate of a sentence always contains a 
verb. Verbs generally express action. The 
Chinese call verbs live words, and nouns dead 
words. Until a verb is put into a group of 



INTERMEDIATE COURSIt. 23 

words, they do not assert any thing. Scholars 
— lessons, tells you nothing about scholars, or 
lessons, but if you put the verb study between, 
you tell something, or assert something of 
scholars. 

Call attention frequently to the fact that the verb is not always a 
single word, but often two or more ; as, was trotting, have been playing. 

Name the verbs which you have already written, and tell 
why each is a verb, thus : 

Burns asserts or tells something about Jire, and, therefore, 
burns is a verb. 

Point out the verbs in your reading-lesson, and tell why 
they are verbs. 

Write verbs after the following subjects, telling what each 
subject does ; thus : 

What does the horse do ? The hqrse draws a wagon. 

subjects : 

the cat, the doctor, the cooper, the sun, 

the rabbit, the barber, the blacksmith, the wind, 

the squirrel, the farmer, the tailor, the rain. 

Of what part of speech is the asserting word in the predi- 
cate ? Analyze your sentences. 

Write ten- sentences, with subjects of your own selection. 

INVERTED SENTENCES : 

Dark was the night. 
Beautiful was the morning. 
Where is the book ? 

Sometimes, as in the above sentences, the 
subject comes after the predicate. The sentence 
is then said to be Inverted, 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If the pupils have any difficulty in finding the subject in an inverted 
sentence, it may be developed by a question. Thus, in the above sen- 
tence, Dark was the night, ask what was dark, and so in other sentences. 

Analyze the following sentences : 

How sad was the story. Fair smiled the mcrn. Great 
was the joy. Wild swept the wind of the mountain. Fiercely 
raged the battle. 

Write sentences with the following nouns as subjects : 
soldiers, ice, eagles, books, 

spring, marbles, mouse, . knowledge. 

Write sentences containing the following predicates : 
are running, is good, rolls, jumps, plants, 

is coming, are useful, falls, swings, flashes. 

Analyze the sentences. 

LESSON III. 

MODIFIERS OR LIMITING WORDS. 

§ 9. Words which in any way change, explain, 
or complete the meaning of other words, are said 
to modify or limit the other words. 

Mr. Reed bought a house. 

Mr. Reed, the carpenter, bought the house. 

In the second sentence, the words Mr. Reed are modified 
by the words carpenter, which explain ivhich Mr. Reed is 
meant. Bought is modified by the word house which com-* 
pletes the meaning, telling what Mr. Reed bought. 

Sometimes a whole sentence is modified. 

He has learned his lesson. 
He has not learned his lesson. 

The word not changes the meaning of the whole sentence, 
or modifies the sentence. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 25 

Modify means to vary, or to change; limit 
means to shut up, or to confine. When one says, 
" Boys study" the assertion is made of all boys, 
and is said to be unlimited. But if one says, 
"Good boys study/' the assertion is made only 
of good boys, and is limited. 

Some teachers prefer the term modify ; others limit. Either may be 
employed as the teacher prefers. 

§ 1®. Nouns are most frequently modified or 
limited by a class of words called 

ADJECTIVES. 

That large white house is for sale. 

Analyze. Point out the noun in the subject. House is 
modified by the words large and white, which limit its mean- 
ing by naming something by which the house can be known 
from other houses. They are said to name its properties or 
qualities. That limits house by pointing out which one is 
meant. 

This book is mine. 
Yonder, tree is tall. 

This limits booh by pointing out which one is meant. Yon- 
der limits tree in the same way. 

Five vessels were captured. 

Five modifies vessels by limiting our thoughts to an exact 
number. 

A few men assembled. 

Few does not limit our thoughts to a definite number? but 
to a small number. 

2 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 11. An Adjective is a word which modi- 
fies a noun by naming some quality or property, 
or by pointing out which, or how many are meant. 

An adjective maybe used as a part of a predi- 
cate, but can never be a subject. 

An adjective can generally be known by its 
making good sense when placed directly before 
the noun. 

§ IS. The same word may be sometimes of 
one class, and sometimes of another. The use 
of a word in the sentence is the only fact by 
which we tell its part of speech. 

The silver cord is loosed. 

The spoon is made of silver. 

Jewelers silver their work. 

In the first sentence, silver modifies cord by naming a 
property, and is an adjective. In the second, it is a noun, 
naming a metal. In the third, it asserts something, and is a 
verb. 

The sailors man the boat. 

That man bought my skates. 

He sent his ??z<m-servant. 

Of what part of speech is man in each of the above sen- 
tences ? 

In the following sentences, tell to what part 
of speech the words in italics belong. 

The saw is broken. The fish swims. 

We saw wood. . Anglers fish. 

Chalk is useful. The sexton rings the bell. 

We chalk the line. Girls wear rings. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 27 

The following words may be either nouns or verbs. Write 
sentences containing them in both uses : 
skate, swing, ride, box, pin, plant, rule, 
cart, wheel, spur, bridle, whip, saddle. 

The following words may be either nouns, adjectives, or 
verbs. Write sentences containing them in each of these 
uses : 

paper, light, cross, stone, 

front, rear, iron, square. 

This exercise is exceedingly valuable and may be extended. 

LESSON IV. 

NAMES OF QUALITIES OR PROPERTIES. 

§ 13, Chalk is soft, white, brittle, useful. 

Soft, white, brittle, and useful, are words which name prop- 
erties, or qualities of the chalk. They make sense when they 
stand directly before the noun, and they can not be used 
alone as the subject of a sentence. Therefore they are ad- 
jectives. 

A thing is described by naming its properties. If you say 
that there is in the desk something round, smooth, melloiv, red, 
sweet, and ripe, you give a description of it by these names 
of qualities. 

Name the qualities of 

rubber, ivory, iron, wood, a ball, 

paper, glass, lead, snow, a knife. 

Urge pupils to make the naming of qualities complete as possible. 
A quality may be noticed or suggested for which the pupils have no 
name. They may observe that wood and paper bum, while iron and 
lead do not, but they do not know the word combustible. Do not give 
out names hastily. Let the pupils search for them. Particularly en- 
courage them to go home with questions like these, " What word ex- 
presses that wood burns easily V " What word can I put with chalk 
to express that it breaks easily V 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

WORDS WHICH TOINT OUT WHAT OBJECTS ARE MEANT. 

§ 14, This book is in my hand. That book 
is on the table. 

What does this show ? What does that show ? Should 
one say, " That book is in my hand, this book is on the 
table ?" What is the difference between this and that ? 

A book is useful. 
The book is useful. 

What is the difference between the first and the second 
sentence ? 

The other tree is full of fruit. 
The latter course was taken. 
These desks are too high. 

Analyze these sentences, and point out the modifiers. 

WORDS THAT DENOTE HOW MANY. 

§ 15. Seven days make a week. 
Three feet make a yard. 
Several roads led to the city. 
Maiiy ships were wrecked. 

Three and seven limit the assertion to a definite number 
several and many denote number, but are not definite. 

§ 1© # There are three classes of adjectives. 

1. Those which name Qualities or Prop- 
erties. These are called Descriptive Adjec- 
tives. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 29 

2. Those which point out which or ivhat ob- 
jects are meant. These are called Specifying' 

Adjectives. 

3. Those which denote how many are meant. 
These are called Numeral Adjectives. 

§ 17, Sometimes an adjective appears to be 
the subject of a sentence. When this is the 
case, the noun which the adjective modifies is 
omitted, thus : 

Both were mistaken. (This means, both persons were 
mistaken.) 
'The wise say. (This means, the wise men say.) 

A noun is often used as an adjective ; as, stone wall ; iron 
frame. It may then be called an adjective, or a noun used 
as an adjective. 

Analyze the following sentences, and point out the nouns, 
adjectives, and verbs in each. Tell to what class each ad- 
jective belongs : 

The other horse is black, That silvery cloud is beautiful. 
Those large red apples are the best. Those industrious 
scholars are busy. The poor old man is lame. Few rich 
men are happy. Several severe battles were fought. 
Twenty brave soldiers were killed, All attentive pupils 
will learn. Every day brings new duties. 

Compose and write ten sentences, each containing a De- 
scriptive adjective ; ten, each containing a Specifying adjec- 
tive ; and ten, each containing a Numeral adjective. 

A word which modifies a subject, can not be 
a part of the predicate, and any word which 
is a part of the predicate, is not a modifier of 
the subject. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON V. 

SENTENCES CONTAINING MODIFIERS. 

§ 1 8. The brave soldiers of the Union fought 

well in the war. 

The principal word in the subject of this sentence is sol- 
diers. The principal thing said of them is fought Soldiers 
is modified by the, a specifying adjective, and brave, a descrip- 
tive adjective, limiting the subject. The words of the Union 
limit the subject still further. It is not said that all soldiers 
fought well, but only that the brave soldiers of the Union 
fought. Fought is modified by well, telling how they fought, 
and by in the war, telling when or where they fought. 

My dog ran through the garden. 

Dog is modified by the word my, telling to whom the dog 
belongs, and ran is modified by the words through the garden, 
showing where the dog ran. 

Words are divided into eight classes. 

The subject, words, is not limited, for the assertion is made 

of all words. Are divided is modified by the words into 

eight classes, showing how words are. divided. 

The pupil's success in grammar depends largely upon the clearness 
with which he comprehends the effect of modifiers. The principal 
ideas in a simple sentence are easily understood ; the difficulties are 
generally with the modifiers, not so much in perceiving what they are, 
as in telling what they mean. "The above examples show how the effect 
of modifiers should be made plain to a class. 

Analyze the following sentences, name the modifiers, and 
tell how each modifier changes the meaning, or limits the 
assertion. 

Every man went to his house. 

The first Napoleon was banished to St. Helena. 

Three wise men of Gotham went to sea in a bowl. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 31 

These large yellow oranges came from Havana. 
The sailor brought home a parrot for his brother. 

§ 19. A subject without modifiers is called a 
simple subject. A subject with limiting words 
is called a modified subject. 

Predicates, like subjects, are simple or modi- 
fied. The simple predicate is always a verb. 

Write ten sentences with modified subjects and predi- 
cates. 

Modifiers of nouns are called adjective modi- 
fiers ; modifiers of v^erbs are called adverbial or 
verbal modifiers. 

CLAUSES. 

§ 20. Sometimes a group of words is used 
as a modifier, which, when used by itself, forms 
a sentence, or which contains a subject and a 
predicate. 

A modifier containing a subject and a predi- 
cate, is called a Clause. 

Two or more related words, in proper order 
for use, not making a sentence or a clause, are 
called a Flsrase. 

In the house, is a phrase. My booh, is a phrase. Thomas 
and William, is a phrase. Down by the mill-pond, is a 
phrase. 

Point out the modifiers in the following sentences, and 
tell what they express. Name the clauses : 

The snow falls steadily. The rain falls in torrents. The 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cars move swiftly. Boys skate on the ice. Three children 
were going to school. He said that he would go. The 
miller fell into the water. The man who is honest will be 
trusted. Do you know who did this ? 

When a semteiace becomes a clause the 

order of its words is often changed, as, 

Who was the man ? I cannot tell who the man was. 
How was it done ? You saw how it was done. 

LESSON VI. 

ADVERBS. 

§ 21 • He speaks sloivly and distinctly. 

Martha writes neatly and rapidly. 

These words in italics belong to a new class. 
Their common name is adverbs, meaning that 
they are added to verbs. They never modify 
substantives. Most of them are formed from 
adjectives by adding ly to the adjective. 

Besides modifying verbs, adverbs often mod- 
ify adjectives. . An adverb may also modify 
another adverb, and sometimes, instead of mod- 
ifying any single word, an adverb modifies a 
whole sentence. 

Most adverbs modifying verbs express when, 
where, or how something is done. 

The work was done yesterday. (When.) 

My brother lives here. (Where.) 

You have learned well. (How.) 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 33 

§^S, Adverbs modifying adjectives. 

His house is very large. It is rather pretty. The apple 
is too sour. Our school-room is beautiful enough. The 
colonel was over confident. This movement was more suc- 
cessful. The weather is excessively hot. I am somewhat 
weary.. 

ADVERBS MODIFYING OTHER ADVERBS. 

Henry writes very well. The horses ran too fast. You 
should not read so rapidly. You ought to study more dil- 
igently. 

t 

ADVERBS MODIFYING WHOLE SENTENCES. 

The boy has not learned his lesson. Certainly the money 
was sent. Indeed you are mistaken. Verily I say unto you 
Perhaps I shall see him. 

§ 23. Examples for analysis. 

Point out the adverbial modifiers in the following sen- 
tences, and tell what each expresses : 

The lightning was bright last evening. The waves dashed 
upon the shore.. The storm rages fiercely. He comes every 
day. He remained in Europe three years. The wood was 
cut with an ax. The poor man died of hunger. Mary 
sings, because she is happy. The hunter killed two bears. 
The teacher likes attentive pupils. 

Verbal modifiers express when, where, why, 
how, how long, whom, what, with what, by what 

Compose twenty sentences, containing verbal modifiers of 
different kinds, and give the meaning of each modifier. 

2* 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CLAUSES AS MODIFIERS. 



§ 24. The man whom you saw with me was my uncle. 
The boy who dares to speak the truth is respected. 
He told me what he had seen. 
Samuel showed me how the example was worked. 

Clauses, like other modifiers, may be adjective 
modifiers, or adverbial modifiers. 

Adjective clauses usually begin with who, 
ivhose, ivhom, which, or that, and stand directly 
after the substantive which they modify. 

Adverbial modifying clauses often begin with 
some word answering the questions, when? 
where ? how ? or why f 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 

ADJECTIVE MODIFYING CLAUSES. 

The man whom 1 met was a German. 
I have sold the horse that I used to drive. 
This is the boy whose arm was broken. 
The storm which was raging is over. 
The pupil who is diligent will improve. 

ADVERBIAL MODIFYING CLAUSES. 

Helen said that she would go. 

He went where his country called. 

The oak stands firm when tempests rage. 

Man learns by pain how frail he is. 

Our nation is prosperous, because it is free. 

Write ten sentences containing adjective modifying clauses. 
Write ten containing adverbial modifying clauses. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 35 

LESSON YIT. 

PRONOUNS, 

§ 25. The farmer and the farmer's son sold 
the grain which the farmer and the farmer's 
son had raised* 

Notice that this sentence may be shortened 
into, " The farmer and Ms son sold the grain 
which they had raised." The sense is not 
changed, but instead of some of the nouns, 
shorter words have been used which are easier 
to speak, and pleasanter to the ear. These 
words are Ms and they ; his standing for the 
farmer's, and they standing for the farmer and 
the farmer's son. 

Mary goes to school, and Mary learns well. 

What word can be put in place of the second word 
Mary without changing the sense ? 

A person who is speaking puts in place of 
his own name the word L Thus, Joseph would 
not say of himself u Joseph saw," but u i"saw." 

When one person speaks to another, he often 
calls him by name first, to get his attention, but 
in the sentence which follows, he uses you in- 
stead of the person's name. The teacher does 
not say, " Charles, Charles must study/* but, 
" Charles, you must study." 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 36. Words used instead of nouns are called 
Pronouns. 

Instead of the names of those persons who 
are speaking, the pronouns, I, my, mine, me, we, 
our, ours, us, are used. 

Instead of the names of persons to whom we 
speak, we use the pronouns, thou, thy, thine, 
thee, ye, you, your, yours. In common speech 
we use only you, your, yours. Thou, thy; thine, 
and thee are used mostly in poetry and in ad- 
dressing God. 

Instead of the names of those objects of 
which we speak, we use three classes of pro- 
nouns. 

1. In speaking of a single male being, we 
use the pronouns, he, his, him. 

2. In speaking of a single female being, we 
use the pronouns, she, her, hers. 

3. In speaking of a single thing, neither ma^e 
nor female, or of a thing whose sex is unimpor- 
tant, we use the pronouns, it, its. 

In speaking of things more than one, we use 

the pronouns, they, their, theirs, them. 

Analyze the following sentences. Name the pronouns, 
and tell whether they stand for the name of the speaker, the 
person spoken to, or something spoken of. 
I have my book and your pencil. 
James has his ball and my bat. 



INTERMEDIATE COUiiSE. 37 

Your pupils have learned their lessons. 

She has received a present from him. 

I have my book, you have yours, she has hers. 

This is my book. This book is mine. 

I found them in their garden. 

You praise us, because we do our duty. 

He found my knife, and lost it again. 

The bird feeds its young and cares for them. 

The child has cut its finger. 

§ 27. The pronoun which a speaker puts' in 
place of his own name, is said to # be of the first 
person. The name of a person spoken to, or a 
pronoun standing for his name, is said to be of 
the second person. All other nouns and pro- 
nouns are said to be of the third person. 

That for which a pronoun stands is called its 
Antecedent. 

§ 28. Pronouns which are used only in one 
person, are called Personal pronouns. 
All the pronouns given above are personal. 

EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 29. The words, who, whose, whom, which, 
and that, standing at the beginning of adjec- 
tive clauses (§ 24), are called Relative Pro- 
nouns. 

The Antecedent of a relative pronoun is 
to be found in the same sentence, and usually 
stands<directly before it. 



38 ENGLISH GltAMMAlt. 

The king who was then reigning was called Alfred. 
They that persevere conquer difficulties. 
The fire which was kindled consumed the whole city. 
Who and whom, refer only to persons, which to things, 
whose and that, to either persons or things. 

Write ten sentences with clauses containing relative 'pro- 
nouns. 

Select from your reader ten sentences containing relative 
pronouns. Analyze them, and name the antecedents of the 
pronouns. 

The pronoims, my, thy, him, her, it, our, and 
your, have sometimes the word self added to 
them. The pronoun them adds selves, in the 
same way. 

Those pronouns with the word thus added, 
are called . Compound personal pronouns. 
They are used when the antecedent of the pro- 
noun is the subject of the sentence, and also to 
modify a noun, making it emphatic. 

I have hurt myself. James has cut himself. Isabella 
made herself sick. Those boys will kill themselves. 
The king himself could do no more. 
I myself am to blame. 

A descriptive adjective standing before a 
noun often means the same as an adjective clause 
which might stand after it. 

The wise man. The man who is wise. 

The shining star. The star which shines. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 39 

§ 30. Insert adjective clauses after the •sub- 
jects of the following sentences, thus: 

The train has not arrived. 

The train which was due at eight o'clock has not arrived. 

The book is lost. 

The book which I was reading is lost. 

My friend has come. 

The farm has been sold. 

* The merchant has bought a house. 

Washington is called a patriot. 

Insert adjective clauses in the predicates of the following 
sentences, thus : 

Father has sold the farm . 

Father has sold the farm which he bought last fall. 

They are chasing a horse . 

We found a guide . 

I should like to read the book . 

The country honors the man — — . 



I received two dollars for the wheat . 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§31. Who did it? What did you say? 
Whom did you see ? Which way have they 
gone? 

It has already been noticed that the sentence is sometimes 
inverted (§ 8) so that the predicate, or part of the predicate, 
comes before the subject. This is usually the case in ques- 
tions. In the sentence, " How do you do ?" you is the sub- 
ject, do do how is the predicate. 

Analyze the questions given above. Write and analyze 
ten sentences, each in the form of a question. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

f 

A sentence which puts the assertion in the 
form of a question is called an Interrogative 
sentence. 

The pronouns who, ivliose, whom, ivhich and 
what, when used in asking questions, are called 
Interrogative pronouns. 

The word for which an interrogative pronoun 
stands is found in the answer of the question, 
thus : . 

Who broke the window ? James broke it. 

In this question, who stands for James. 

Write ten sentences containing interrogative pronouns. 
Analyze them. 

Select from some one of your books ten sentences which 

contain interrogative pronouns. 

Pupils very commonly give the interrogative pronoun when asked to 
give the relative. The distinction to be emphasized is that the latter 
is used only in adjective clauses. 

LESSON VIII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 33. My dog is the table. 

Charles sits the table. 

The book lies the table. 

Father stood the table. 

Put a word into each of the above sentences 
that will complete the sense. Notice that these- 
words show something about the position or 
place of the subject compared with the table. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE, 



41 



Under, at, on, by, show how the table is placed, 
or in what way it is related to each subject. 

There are about forty common words which 
are used to connect substantives with other 
words, and, at the same time, to show how the 
following substantive is related to some preced- 
ing word. These words are called Preposi- 
tions, The name preposition means placed be- 
fore, The following substantive whose relation 
is expressed, is called the subsequent of the 
preposition. The preposition and its subsequent 
usually make an adverbial phrase. 

§ IIS, A LIST OF COMMON PREPOSITIONS. 



about, 


before, 


for, 


through. 


above, 


behind, 


from, 


till, 


across, 


below, 


in, 


to, 


after, 


beneath. 


into, 


toward, 


along, 


beside, 


of, 


under, 


amid, 


between, 


off, 


until, 


among, 


beyond, 


on, 


up, 


around, 


by, 


over, 


with, 


at, 


down, 


since, 


without. 



Prepositions are very closely related to ad- 
verbs, and are. used mostly in adverbial phrases. 
Of is the only preposition which is often em- 
ployed in an adjective phrase. 

When the subsequent of the preposition is 
omitted, the preposition usually becomes an 
adverb. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Notice that many of these prepositions have 
exact opposites in meaning, and may be arranged 
in pairs, thus : 

before, behind, 

over, under, 

above, below. 

Name other prepositions which have opposites. 

Write sentences containing each of the above prepositions. 
(Two or more can be used in the same sentence). Analyze; 
and tell what relation the preposition and its subsequent 
show. 

WORDS THAT CONNECT SENTENCES AND WORDS 

§ 34. In order that words may make sense, 
they must be joined together properly. The 
words, stick, a, with, boy, dog, the, struck, do not 
make sense because they are not in proper order 
to express any thing. 

The same words make sense when placed 
thus ; 

The boy struck the dog with a stick. 

Generally the sense is shown by the order in 
which words stand. 

Men plant corn. Men hoe corn. 

In these two sentences the subjects are the 
same. The word corn is found in both predi- 
cates. Generally we shorten such sentences by 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 43 

joining the verbs of the two predicates by the 
word and, and express the rest but once, thus : 
Men plant and hoe corn. 

The predicate is then called Compound; 
that is, it is made up of parts. 

The robins are singing. The blue-birds are singing. 

Here we have two sentences with the same 
predicate, but the subjects are different. The 
subjects are generally connected by and, and 
the sentence shortened, thus : 

The robins and blue-birds are singing. 

The subject is then said to be compound. 

Shorten the following sentences in the same way as in the 
examples above : 

The lion is fierce. The lion is strong. 

The soldiers fought. The soldiers conquered. 

Apples are ripe. Peaches are ripe. 

The merchant buys goods. The merchant sells goods. 

§ 35. Words whose chief use is to connect 
words, sentences, or parts of sentences, are called 
Conjunctions, or Mnd-words. 

And, font, if, lest, or, nor, though, yet, 

and because, are the most common conjunctions. 

Write four sentences with compound subjects. Write four 
with compound predicates. 

Write four with both subjects and predicates compound, 
thus : 

Charles and William read and spell. 

Sometimes a sentence is joined to another 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sentence, or a clause to a sentence, by a con- 
junction, thus : 

The company will come, if it does not rain. 
His courage was neyer doubted, but bis judgment was not 
trustworthy. 

Write two sentences connected by and. 
Write two sentences connected by but. 
Write two sentences connected by or. 
Write two sentences connected by because. 

A clause introduced by a relative or an inter- 
rogative pronoun, has generally no connecting 
word before it. Sometimes an adverb connects 
a sentence with a clause. 

The general asked what they saw. 
They will hear us when we call. 
Who knows why the army failed ? 

EXCLAMATIONS. 

§ 3®. Certain words are used to express feel- 
ing which the speaker can not well express by 
sentences. Pshaw ! Fudge 1 Bah /• Oh ! are 
examples. There are not many of them in the 
language. They form no part of the sentence. 

There are eight ela§§es of words, or parts 
of speech, the Noam, the Verb, the Adjec- 
tive, the Pronoun, the Adverb, the Pre- 
position, the Conjunction, and the Excla- 
mation. 

Nouns and Pronouns are also called. Substan- 
tives. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 45 

Any word, phrase, or sentence, which is used 
as the subject of a sentence becomes a substan- 
tive in that sentence. 

For example, in the sentence, " For is a preposition," we 
are talking of the word for. Therefore, it is the subject of 
the sentence, and it is called a substantive rather than a noun, 
lest we should appear to say that it is both a preposition and 
a noun. 

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

Before going further, the parts of speech are to be thoroughly re- 
viewed, and sentences should be required which involve several points 
at once. Do not advance further unless your class can write promptly 
and accurately such sentences as the following : 

Write a sentence with a simple subject and a modified predicate. 

Write a sentence with a subject modified by a numeral adjective, and 
a predicate modified by an adverb. 

Write a sentence containing a clause modifying the subject, and a 
clause modifying the predicate. \ 

Write a sentence containing a pronoun in the second person, a pre- 
position and an exclamation. 

Write a sentence containing the eight classes of words. 

A good exercise upon modifiers is to start with a simple sentence of 
two words, and require modifiers to be added to any required extent : 
as, " Boys play/' Require a desc. adj. modifying the subject, a noun 
mod. the pred., a phrase with a preposition in it mod. the pred., a numeral 
adj. mod. the subj., &c, varying the sentence in a great many ways. 
The sentence, " Many good boys play ball in the yard " would con- 
tain the modifiers required. 

This sentence-writing will take time both to write and to correct. 
Considerable of it should be done at the board that the class may criti- 
cise and learn. The teacher will save time by designating the points 
required in the sentence in some such way as this. 



Write a sentence containing a pronoun of the third person, a relative 



pronoun, ancUa preposition. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Write a sentence containing a clause introduced by a relative pro- 

3 4 



noun, an adverb and a specifying adjective. 
The pupil writes his sentences thus : 



The boy who gave me the apple was riding in a carriage with his 
father. 

4 2 1 3 

The lesson which you gave us was too long. 

Teachers will save time by requiring exercise papers, or blank books, 
to be of uniform size, and, if pencils are used, to employ printing-paper, 
which is much cheaper for the pupil, and will save the eye-sight of the 
teacher. Corrections are best made with a blue pencil. At first the 
corrections should be explained, but after practice the pupils should 
detect and correct their own errors. Faulty exercises should be rewrit- 
ten till they are amended. 



LESSON IX. 

CHANGES IN THE FORM OF WORDS. 

§ 37. The farmer binds the sheaf with a band. 

They bound the thief with bonds. 

Notice that all the four words in italics con- 
tain the idea of tying, though they do not mean 
exactly the same. The letters 6, n, d, are found 
in each word, and these letters contain the prin- 
cipal meaning. They are called the root of the 
word. The changes in meaning are made by 
changing the other letters of the word. 

When one word is formed from another by 
changing some of its letters, or by adding letters 
to the beginning, or to the end of the word, we 
say that a new word is derived from the first. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 47 

§38. Words are derived from other words in 
four ways: 

1. By changing letters within the word ; as, 
bind, band, bond, bound. 

2. By placing letters before the word; as, 
bind, zm-bind; use, mis-use, a&-use. 

3. By adding letters to the word; as, care, 
careful, careless, car(e)ing, cares. 

4. By joining one word to another ; as, watch- 
factory. 

These changes modify the meaning of the 
root, but as we have used modifiers to express 
words which modify other words, we call these 
changes which are made in the word, or in its 
ending, changes in form. 

§ 39. When the same changes are made in 
the form of a class of words, to denote the 
same change in meaning, the change is called 
Inflection. 

Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and 
a few adverbs are inflected. 

§ 4®. Pencil, book, house. 

•Pencils, books, houses. * 

Notice that under each of the nouns given in the first 
line, there stands another noun derived from it by adding s. 
Each noun in the upper line denotes one thing ; the noun 
in the lower line derived from it denotes more than one 
thing. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

That form of a substantive which denotes one 
thing is called the Singular number. 

That form of the substantive which denotes 
more than one thing is called the Plural number. 

To annex, in speaking of changes in form, 
means to place after 

To prefix means to place before. 

§41. Most nouns, like those given above, are 
changed frofri the singular form to the plural 
form by annexing s to the singular. 

When s annexed can not be easily sounded, es 
is added to form the plural, as 
box, glass, match, bush, church, 
boxes, glasses, matches, bushes, churches. 

A few nouns form the plural by changing 

letters within the word ; as, 

man, men; mouse, mice; foot, feet; tooth, teeth. 

Can you give any other words of either of these classes ? 
Are there any other ways of forming the plural ? Pronouns 
do not form their plural in any regular way. In § 27 both 
singular and plural forms are given. Tell which are singu- 
lar, and which are plural. 

DIFFERENCE OF SEX. 

§ 4S. A few nouns change their endings to 
show whether the persons named by them are 
male or female. 

Actor, actress; count, countess; hero, hero- 
ine ; widower, widow ; Francis, Frances. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 49 

Names of males are said to be of the mascu- 
line gender, names of females are of the 
feminine gender. 

POSSESSION. 

§ 43. This is the nest of an eagle. 

The house of my father is large. 

How can these sentences be shortened ? What does the 
phrase of my father show ? 

Which sounds the better, " This is the ring of my mother/' 
or, " This is my mother's ring ?" Do the sentences differ 
in meaning ? 

The phrase of my mother shows to whom the ring belongs ; 
or who possesses or owns the ring. The same relation is ex- 
pressed in the shorter sentence by changing the ending of 
the noun mother, and by bringing the noun into another place 
in the sentence. 

When the preposition of, and its subsequent 
modify a noun, the same relation is sometimes 
expressed by changing- the ending of the subse- 
quent noun, and placing it before the noun 
modified. 

Change the phrases in italics to shorter forms : 
The flash of the lightning was bright. 
The poems of Milton are admired. 
The flight of the swallow is rapid. 

Of audits subsequent generally express posses- 
sion, and nouns with the ending which expresses 
this relation are said to be in the Possessive, 

§ 44. Nouns in the singular express the re- 
3 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lation of possession by adding s, preceded by an 
apostrophe. The apostrophe shows the omission 
of i which was once written in the ending. 
Mary's, teacher's, pupil's, bird's. 

Nouns in the plural, ending in s, add the 
apostrophe to make the possessive form. 
Turkeys', eagles', soldiers 7 , babies'. 

Nouns whose plural form does not end in s 
form the possessive by adding s preceded by an 
apostrophe; as 
men, men's, oxen, oxen's. 

Write sentences containing the plurals ' of the following 
nouns : 
monkey, hero, king, queen, fox. 

Write sentences containing the possessive singular of the 
following nouns : 
servant, soldier, officer, teacher, doctor. 

Find ten sentences in jour reader containing nouns in the 
possessive. 

§ 43. Nouns, then, change their form to de- 
note three relations. 

1. The relation of number, 

2. The relation of sex. 

3. The relation of possession. 

The change of the form of the noun which 
denotes number and possession is called Ueclen- 
slon. 

Teachers will find that errors in writing possessive forms are very 
'common, and will need to spend considerable time upon this subject. 
The possessive plural is most frequently mistaken. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 51 

LESSON X. 

CONJUGATION. 

§ 46. I twite to-day. I turote yesterday. I 
shall write to-morrow. John ivrites. The letter 
is written. Father ivas writing. 

In these six sentences the same action is 
spoken of; the action of writing. The letters 
w-r-t are the root of the verb, and contain the 
principal meaning. 

The verb is varied in the following ways : 

By changing letters ivithin the word; as, 
wrde, wrote. 

By annexing letters; as, write, writes, writ(e)- 
ing. 

By prefixing words which make some asser- 
tion, and take some form of write to complete 
their meaning ; as, shall write, ivas writing. 

Write sentences containing some variation of each of the 
following verbs : 
give, throw, know, see, hear, feel. 

^ § 47. Some of these changes show the time' 
of the action ; some show whether the action is 
finished or unfinished ; some show 4 the per- 
son of the subject (§ 28) ; some show whether 
the subject is the doer of the action ; some show 
whether the subject is singular or plural. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

Soldiers fVght. Soldiers fought. 
The change in the form shows a change in time. 
I am writing a letter. I have written a letter. 

The action in the first sentence is unfinished, in the 
second, finished. 

Thou God seest me. 
God sees all things. 

The change in ending shows that the person of the subject 
is changed. In the first sentence God is spoken to, in the 
second He is spoken of. 

The man plows the field. 
The field is plowed. 

In the first sentence the subject does the action which is 
affirmed ; in the second, the same action is affirmed, but the 
subject is not the doer, and the sentence does not tell who 
did it. 

The man is here. The men are here. 

The change of is to are shows a change in the number 
of the subject. 

§ 48. Time may be Present, Past, or Fu- 
ture. 

Actions may be spoken of as finished or un- 
finished, in either present, past or future time. 

Present unfinished, I am writing a letter. 

Present finished, He has written a letter. 

Past unfinished, We were writing a letter. 

-n r . 1 -i ( They had toritten a letter. 
Past finished, •< J : 

( They tvrote a letter. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 53 

Future unfinished, I shall write. 
Future finished, She will have written. 

Analyze the followiDg sentences. Tell the number of 
each subject. Tell the time of each verb. Tell whether 
the action is finished, or unfinished. Tell whether the sub- 
ject is the doer of the action. Change the verb in each sen- 
tence so as to express a different time ; as, 

The river rose. The river is rising. 

The wheat has been harvested. The laws had been 
broken. The book will be printed. My friends were trav- 
eling. The deed will have been done. The ship is coming 
into the harbor. 

Do the same with the sentences in § 18. 

§ 49. The changes which are made in the 
forms of verbs to express these different facts 
in regard to the action are called Conjugation. 

The forms by which we know the time of the 
action, and whether it is finished or unfinished, 
are called Tense-forms. Tense comes from a 
word meaning time. When a verb has the form 
which denotes present time, it is said to be in 
the present tense ; when its form denotes past 
time, it is in the past tense. 

The forms which show that the subject is the 
doer of the action are called the forms of the 
Active Voice. If these forms are not used, 
the verb is said to be in the Passive Voice. 

§ 50. I read, he reads. You go, she goes. 

The endings s and es show that the subject is 
of the third person and singular number. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAk. 

Write five sentences, in which there is mentioned some 
unfinished action ; as, The boys were skating. 

Write five sentences in which the verbs express finished 
action ; as, The time has come. 

Write five sentences with a verb in the 'present tense ; as, 
Mother is mending my kite, 

Write five sentences with the verb in past time, either 
finished, or unfinished ; as, I sold my knife. She was sing- 
ing a hymn. 

Write five sentences with the verb in future time, either 
finished, or unfinished; as, The boy will fall. The mail 
will have been opened. 

THE PARTICIPLE. 

§ ffA. Verbs have adjective forms, or forms 
which are used to modify nouns. These forms 
are commonly called Participles, or Verbal 

Adjectives. There are two of these verbal 
adjectives for each verb. One always ends in 
ing, as, seeing; the other ends in d or i, as, 
haterf, feli, or in n, as, seen. 

This laboring man earns his wages. 

He was laboring with great earnestness. 

In the first sentence laboring asserts nothing, and is a ver- 
bal adjective. In the second sentence it may still be called 
an adjective, but it is a part of the predicate, or, of the 
assertion, and the phrase was laboring is called a form of 
the verb labor. 

§ 52. The verbal adjective in ing is called 
the Imperfect (or unfinished) Participle; 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 55 

the other endings belong to the Perfect (or 
finished) Participle* 

The principal difference between the verbal 
adjective and other adjectives is, that the verbal 
adjective may have all the modifiers of the verb. 

The participle having joined with the perfect 
participle of a verb, makes what is called a 
Compound participle, as, having seen. 

A Clause (§ 20) is sometimes shortened by 
leaving out the subject, and by using the parti- 
ciple instead of some form of the verb which 
expresses assertion. The participle is then said 
to refer to the word which would be the sub- 
ject of the sentence, if nothing was omitted. 

When I had finished my lesson, I had an hour left for 
reading. 

Having finished my lesson, I had an hour left for reading. 

The compound participle, having finished, refers to the 
subject I. Having finished is modified by my lesson, show- 
ing what is finished. Hour is modified by left, a verbal ad- 
jective, derived from the verb leave. 

§ 53. This verbal adjective form in ing is 
also used as a noun, while it still retains the 
modifiers of the verb. 

Writing rapidly is very tiresome. 

In this sentence writing is a noun, because it is the sub- 
ject of the sentence. But it is modified by the adverb 
rapidly. Therefore it differs from other nouns, because it 
admits a verbal modifier. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Talcing his gun, the farmer went out. 

The finished garment lay beside her. 

A neatly-written letter indicates a careful scholar. 

Having read the letter, he put it in his pocket. 

The battle, hotly contested for three hours, was at last won 
by the rebels. 

Point out the participles in the above sentences. Tell 
whether they denote finished or unfinished action. Point 
out their modifiers. 

THE INFINITIVE. 

§ 54. Verbs have another substantive form 
besides that in ing. This form is usually pre- 
ceded by the preposition to, and is called the 
Infinitive of the verb. 

She tried to sing the song. 

To sing well is a valuable accomplishment. 

To write neatly requires pains. 

We have learned to spell correctly. 

This substantive form, or verbal noun, differs from other 
nouns in having adverbial modifiers. The to before the verb 
is often omitted. 

Verbs ar£ conjugated to express Tense, 
Voice, Person and Number. ■ 

LESSON XL 

COMPARISON. 

§ 55. Some descriptive Adjectives, and a 
few Adverbs admit a change of form called 
Comparison. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 57 

When an adjective simply names a quality, 
it is said to be in the Positive degree ; as, 
wise, brave, kind. 

But when, besides naming the quality, a com- 
parison is expressed by the adjective, the ad- 
jective is said to be in the Comparative de- 
gree. The comparative form annexes r or er 
to the positive form ; as wiser, braver, kinder. 

When, besides naming a quality, the adjective 
expresses the highest degree of the quality named, 
it is said to be in the Superlative degree. 
The superlative form annexes st, or est to the 
positive form ; as wisest, bravest, kindest. 

This is a large boy. 

This boy is larger than his elder brother. 

Thomas is the largest boy in school. 

Never use the ending est with an adjective when compar- 
ing two. Do not say, He is the oldest of the two. You 
might as well say, He is oldest than his brother. 

Some adjectives cannot be compared because of their 
meaning ; as, square, woolen, triangular. Such adjectives 
are called invariable. Others are called variable. 

Variable descriptive adjectives of one syl- 
lable, and a few of more than one syllable, ad- 
mit the inflection of comparison. 

Dear, dearer, dearest. 
Tall, taller, tallest. 
Lovely, lovelier, loveliest. 
Compare small, tvise, old, near, fine, sweet 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i 

A few adverbs are compared like adjectives ; as, soon, 
sooner, soonest. 

Instead of expressing comparison, by endings, the same idea 
may be expressed by the adverbs more and most prefixed to 
the adjective ; as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 

All adjectives may be compared in this way, and adjectives 
of more than one syllable are generally thus compared. 

Compare useful, agreeable, fickle, rapid, weary. 

DIMINUTIVES. 

§ 5©. From nouns are sometimes formed 
nouns which denote a small thing of the same 
kind. Such nouns are called Diminutives. 

The word from which another word is formed 
is called a Primitive word. 

From stream we form stream^ ; meaning a little stream. 

From river we form Yiswlet ; meaning a little river. 

From goose we form gosling ; meaning a little, or a young, 
goose. 

From lamb we form lambHra ; from hill we form hillock ; 
from cat we form hit. 

Form diminutives from the following : 

lance, flower, wave, lake, bull, brook, 

leaf, isle, eye, bird, top, duck. 

ABSTRACT NOUNS. 

§ 57. Besides those names of qualities which 
modify nouns, we have names which can be used 
as subjects of sentences. We say, God is very 
good, or, The goodness of God is very great. 
Nfoun names of qualities are called Abstract 
nouns* 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 



59 



They are derived from adjectives by annexing 
iie-ss, ity 9 th, ce, cy, and a few have other 
endings. Thus, from good we form goodness ; 
from kind, kindness ; from able we form ability ; 
from true, truth; from long, length; from elo- 
quent, eloquence ; from fluent, fluency. 

Form abstract nouns from the following : 

wide, strong, deep, high, broad, 

active, agile, acid, plural, docile, 

neat, useful, idle, happy, weary, 

elegant, affluent, competent, different, truant. 

LESSON XII. 

KINDS OF SENTENCES. 
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. 

§ 58, The king has governed well. My father will re- 
turn. Your plan may not succeed. We should study 
diligently. 

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

Can your story be true? Do you intend to remain? 
Why did you not learn this lesson ? What did you say ? 

IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 

Let seven sentences be written. Go home now, but re- 
turn immediately. Lend me a knife. Do not be rude. 



EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

What a beautiful sunset ! How he does talk ! A very 
strange story ! How very ridiculous ! 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 59. A Declarative sentence asserts a 
thing as a fact. The thing asserted may not 
be true, but the speaker gives it as a fact. 

An Interrogative sentence asks a question. 

An Imperative sentence expresses the will 
of the speaker, as a command, entreaty, or request. 
The subject of an imperative sentence is gener- 
ally of the second person, and is usually omitted. 

An Exclamatory sentence expresses strong 
feeling. A sentence of this class is often incom- 
plete. 

§ 6©. A Simple sentence contains one sub- 
ject and one predicate. 

A Complex sentence contains a clause (§21) 
modifying either the subject, predicate, or whole 
assertion. 

The horse which ran away has been caught. 

This is a complex sentence, because it contains a clause 
modifying the subject. 

We will answer when you call. 

This sentence contains a clause modifying the predicate, 
showing the time of answering ; and it is, therefore, a complex 
sentence. 

If you do this, you will be sorry. 

The principal thing asserted here is, " You will be sorry." 
But this is not said as a thing which will certainly happen. 
The clause " If you do this," modifies the whole assertion. 
The sentence is, therefore, complex. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 61 

Compound sentences are made up of two or 
more simple sentences, connected by conjunc- 
tions ; or connected by position without any 
connecting word. 

Sarah is writing, and Emily is reading. 

He came, he saw, he conquered. 

He went to Chicago, but he did not stay. 

A complex sentence may contain several clauses ; as, If 
you go, you will see something which will please you. 

A sentence may be both Complex and Compound ; as, 
You who bought it, and you who sold it, are both to blame. 

A sentence may have a compound subject and a simple 
predicate ; as, William and Robert are bringing him home. 

A sentence may have a simple subject and a compound 
predicate ; as, He is singing and playing. 

Both subject and predicate may be compound ; as, The 
boys and girls are running and shouting. 

A sentence which contains a clause is called a princi- 
pal or Icadipg' sentence, its subject is called the leading 
subject, and its verb the leading verb. In the complex sen- 
tence, " The king told them what the miller said/ 9 king is 
the leading subject, and told is the leading verb. 

. INCOMPLETE SENTENCES. 

§61. A sentence is often left incomplete 
by the speaker, either to save words, or because 
his meaning is plainly .understood without words. 

Leaving out words which the hearer easily 
supplies is called Ellipsis, and a sentence from 
which something is omitted, is called an elliptical 



62 ENGLISH GIlAMMAi:. 

sentence. Sometimes the subject is omitted ; 
sometimes the predicate ; sometimes both. 
Go home. 
The subject you is omitted. 

How strange ! 
This sentence in full would be " How strange it is !" 

Ellipsis is most common in Imperative and 

Exclamatory sentences. It may be used in 

speaking much more than in 'writing, because 

the speaker's looks and motions may make his 

meaning plain. 

Supply the ellipsis in the following sentences : 

Give me a book. 

Go to that chamber. Why ? Because you are bidden. 

Whither are you going ? To the city. 

Why did he come back ? For his boohs, 

§ ©SJ. The name of the person addressed forms 
no part of the sentence. It is used simply to 
call his attention to the sentence following : 

Harry, what have you there ? 
Jane, is this your book ? 

Exclamations generally stand alone, and 
neither modify, nor are modified. They are a 
kind of elliptical sentence. 

Yes, no, certainly, and* some other words used 
in answering questions, do not modify the sen- 
tence with which they stand connected. They 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 63 

modify either an omitted verb, or the sentence 

containing the question. 

No, you are mistaken. 
Certainly, with pleasure. 
Yes, you may have it. 

Supply sentences to which the above may be answers, and 
if there is any ellipsis, supply it. 

§ 63. Analysis of sentences. 

An analysis of several sentences is now presented, that a plan for 
general use may be made plain. It is not so important to name the 
exact form as to name the use of the word in a sentence. The analysis 
offered is designed to show what a pupil ought to know of a sentence 
when he has finished the book up to this point. 

1. On a pleasant morning in the early autumn, 
a traveler was riding leisurely along the valley. 

This is a simple sentence, containing but one subject and 
one predicate. It asserts something as a fact, and is there- 
fore declarative. A traveler is that of which the assertion is 
made, and is, therefore, the subject. Was riding leisurely 
along the valley, on a pleasant morning in the early autumn, 
is the predicate. Traveler is the name of an object, and is, 
therefore, a noun. It is modified by the specifying adjective 
a. Was riding is the verb of the predicate. Its form shows 
that the action spoken of is past and unfinished. It is modi- 
fied by leisurely, an adverb telling how ; by the phrase along 
the valley, telling where ; and by the phrases, on a pleasant 
morning and in the early autumn, telling when the traveler 
was riding. On, in, and along are prepositions. Their re- 
spective subsequents are morning, autumn, and valley. Morn- 
ing is modified by the descriptive adjective pleasant, and the 
specifying adjective a. Autumn is modified by the descript- 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ive adjective early, and the specifying adjective the. Valley 
is modiiied by the specifying adjective the. 

§ ©4. 2. The tree which stood by the road- 
side was struck by lightning last night. 

A declarative sentence; complex, because the subject con- 
tains an adjective clause. The subject is, The tree which 
stood by the roadside ; the rest of the sentence is the predi- 
cate. The noun tree is modified by the, a specifying adject- 
ive, and by the clause which stood by the roadside. This 
clause is a specifying adjective clause ; adjective, because it 
modifies a substantive, and specifying, because it tells which 
tree is meant. Which is a relative pronoun. It is the sub- 
ject of the clause. Its antecedent is tree. Stood by the 
roadside is the predicate of the clause. Stood is a verb ; it 
asserts something of which. Its form shows past time, fin- 
ished. It is modified by the phrase by the roadside, telling 
where. Was struck asserts something of tree, and is, there- 
fore, a verb. Its form shows past time, finished, and also 
that the subject is not the doer of the action. It is said to 
be in the passive voice, past tense. It is modified by the 
phrase by lightning, telling what did the action ; also by the 
phrase, last night, telling when the action was done. 

§ 65. 3. Had you finished your work when 
I saw you walking in the garden ? 

A complex interrogative sentence, containing an adverbial 
clause. You is the subject. It is a pronoun standing for the 
name of some person addressed, and is, therefore, of the 
second person. Had finished is the verb of the predicate. 
Its form shows that the action is past and complete. It is 
modified by your work, telling what was finished, and by the 
clause when I saw you, expressing time. The subject of the 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 65 

clause is I, a pronoun standing for the name of the speaker, 
and therefore of the first person. Saw is the verb of the 
clause. Its form shows that the action is past and finished. 
Its present form is see. It is modified by you, telling whom I 
saw. You is modified by walking, a verbal adjective. Walk- 
ing is modified by in the garden, a phrase denoting place. 
When is an adverb of time, modifying saw, and also connect- 
ing the clause to the principal sentence. 

§ 66. 4. All ancient art was religious, but all 

modern art is profane. 

A compound declarative sentence, consisting of two simple 
sentences. (The subjects and modifiers are plainly seen). 
The sentences are connected by the conjunction hut. This 
conjunction shows that the sentences are compared with each 
other, and that the speaker wishes us to notice a difference. 

§ 67a 5. Three kings had once met to form 
a treaty of peace. 

ANALYSIS BY WORDS. 

A simple declarative sentence. 

Three is a numeral adjective modifying kings. Kings is a 
noun, in the plural, subject of the sentence. Had met is a 
verb, predicate of the sentence, past tense, active voice, de- 
notes complete action. Once is an adverb, denotes time, and 
modifies had met. To form is an infinitive phrase, modifies 
had met, shows for what purpose they had met. A is a speci- 
fying adjective, modifies treaty. Treaty is a noun, modifies 
to form, shows what they had met to form. C/*is a preposi- 
tion, shows the relation between treaty and peace. Peace is 
a noun, subsequent of of, and with of forms a phrase modify- 
ing treaty, showing what kind of treaty. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ ©So Sentences for analysis. 

The following sentences are selected from the Third Readers of sev- 
eral common series, as presenting the kind of sentences with which 
children are expected to be familiar. Teachers must remember that 
pupils at this stage are not expected to analyze very complex sentences. 

Just then her father came in from the field. 

Uncle William, may I go over to your store this morning? 

One evening, soon after his father's return from the city, 
Edwin took his seat beside him. 

How long have you had that box ? 

During the night the cattle got into the garden, and de- 
stroyed every thing in it. 

Never give up is a good motto. 

Out of the little twigs these tall trees were made. 

His garments are red with the blood of the grape. 

Tell me, if you know, who he is, and what is his name. 
The frost looked forth one still, clear night, 
And whispered, " Now I shall be out of sight." 

Ben Adam had a golden coin one day 
Which he put at interest with a Jew. 

" Will you give my kite a lift ?" said my little nephew to 
his sister. 

I think John Brown has it, for I saw him pick it up. 
Around the fire one winter night, 
.The farmer's rosy children sat. 

The types with which the letters are printed are made of 
metal. 

The sound of dropping nuts is heard in the wood. 

As we were coming home we saw, ahead of us, a queer- 
looking affair in the road. 

Among the most beautiful of small birds is the Australian 
robin. 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 67 

The Cadi bowed to the ground, and kissed his master's 
hand. 

" A pleasant nap, indeed !" replied the swallow. 

" Keep your distance !" said the pack horse, again throw- 
ing up his heels. 

He heard it ringing, and saw it glancing down the old 
mossy stones. 

LESSON XIV. 

LETTER WRITING. 

One of the most important things for a pupil to learn is 
how to write a letter. It is a necessity in every education. 
Yet mistakes in dating and directing letters are very com- 
mon. Some years ago, an important school in Massachusetts 
advertised for a teacher, a College graduate, and one who 
had had experience in High Schools. Of one hundred and 
ten applicants, seventy were rejected in consequence of mis- 
takes in spelling, punctuation, and in dating, folding, and 
directing their letters. . 

The date of a letter properly means the time at which it is 
written. It commonly includes the name«of the place from 
which the letter is sent. The date should stand near the top 
of the page ; on the first line, as a general rule. Care 
should be taken to commence far enough to the left to pre- 
vent crowding. 

The name of the post office comes first, then the name of 
the county, then the state, then the month and day of the 
month, then the year. These generally stand upon the same 
line, but if the names of the post office and county are long, 
it is better to make two lines, thus : 

Princeton, Bureau Co., III., Jan. 30th, 1869. 

Jefferson, Ashtabula Co., Ohio, ) 
September 29th, 1868. J 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In writing from large towns, or cities where letter carriers 
deliver letters, the name of the county is omitted, but the 
name of the street, and the number of the house are given, 
thus : 

310 E. 55th St., New York, June 1st, 1869. 

Let the pupils write other examples. Notice the punctuation care- 
fully. 

Next follows the address. It should never stand on the 
same line with the date. Its usual place is on the second or 
third line below. It should stand to the left of the date ; 
thus : 

Monticello, Jones Co., Iowa, Jan. 10th, 1869. 
Mr. George A. Walton, 

Dear Sir: 
This form of address is the common one for addressing 
business letters, or letters to persons with whom one is 
slightly acquainted. If a business firm is addressed, the 
following forms may be used : 

Messrs. Harper and Brothers: 

T. V. Farwell & Co., 

Gentlemen : 

A married woman is addressed thus : 

Mrs. Mary Martin, 

Dear Madam : 

An unmarried woman is addressed thus : 

Miss Sarah Williams: 

In writing to relatives, or intimate friends, they may be 
addressed by their first names, by the name which expresses 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 69 

the relationship, or by the title Friend, followed by the first 
name, or by the last name ; as, Dear Mother ; Cousin James ; 
Friend George; Friend Johnson. 

The heading of a letter, including the date, the address, 
and the beginning of the letter proper, should be in the 
forms given below. 

Springfield, Sangamon Co., Illinois, ) 
February 2Mh, 1869. ) 

Mr. Samuel Jones, 

Dear Sir: 
In answer to your letter of inquiry, I beg leave to say, 
etc. 



244 Canal St., New York, Aug. 1st, '69. 
Messrs. P. Smith & Co. : 

We enclose you our price list, with the latest additions 
and corrections. 



23 Carondelet St., New Orleans, La., 1 
November 25th, 1867. ) 

Dear Brother William : 

Your letter of the 15th inst. was received some days 
since. 

• If the full name of the person addressed does not appear 
at the beginning of the letter, it is customary to write it at 
the bottom of the letter, below the writer's signature, and at 
the left hand. 

A broad margin should always be left on the left of the 
page, but the lines should be filled out to the right. Great 
care should be taken to have no blots or erasures, and to 
write legibly. A mistake may sometimes lead to serious 
consequences. 

For the ending of a letter there are many forms. A few 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of the common ones are given. They should stand to tbe 
right rather than to the left of the page. 

BUSINESS LETTER FORMS. 

Hoping to receive your order, we remain, 

Yours respectfully, 

Harper and Brothers. 
Messrs. J. H. Wilder & Co. 



Yours truly, 

James A. Lockwood. 

Agent fpr S. P. Sanders. 



Yours with respect, 

John Holmes. 
Daniel Anderson, Esq. 



Letters to friends admit more variety. 

Your affectionate son, 

Henry. 
To Mrs. Ellen Green, 
Indianavolis* 



EEN, \ 

is, Ind. ) 



Cordially yours, 

James Bowen. 
J. R. Clark, \ 
Derry, JV. H. ) 

Yours as ever, Affectionately yours, Yours in love, Yours 
in the good cause, Yours in Christ, are other forms which 
may he mentioned. 

No special directions need be given for folding a letter. 
One simple rule is to make as few folds as possible. The 
paper should fill the envelope, but not crowd it. Nothing 
looks more clumsy than a small envelope with a large sheet 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 71 

of paper crowded into it A paper-folder should be used to 
press down the folds, and make them lie smooth, and to 
avoid soiling the paper. The first page should be folded 
inside. 

The common fault in directing envelopes is to begin too 
far to the right, so that the writing is crowded and one-sided. 
The direction should stand about in the middle of the envel- 
ope. The place for the stamp is on the upper right-hand 
corner, and the writing should not interfere with the stamp. 
The greatest pains should be taken to have the direction 
plain. Nine-tenths of letters lost are lost by careless direc- 
tion. 

FORM FOR DIRECTION. 

[Stamp.] 
Daniel Anderson, Esq., 

288 Broad St., 

New York. 
Care of Kipley & Morse. 

The gummed part of the envelope, that is, the movable 
flap, is always the top of the letter. The post office and 
state should be very distinct, for the convenience of those 
who are to deliver it. They do not care so much to know 
to whom it is to go, as where it is to go. So many post of- 
fices in the United States have the same name, that the state 
should always be given, and generally the county. Except 
that in the case of large cities like New York, Philadelphia, 
Boston, etc., the name of the city alone is enough. 

A FORMAL BUSINESS LETTER. 

Washington, D. C, April 19th, 1831. 

Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of 
yours of this date, in answer to mine of the same. 

In reply to your remark that there is one expression in 
my letter to which you must except, I would respectfully 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

answer that I gave what I understood to be the substance 
of your conversation. I did not pretend to quote your 
language. 

I have the honor to be, with the greatest respect, 
Your obedient servant, 

John Branch. 
His Excellency, Andrew Jackson, \ 
• President of the United States, j* 

ORDINARY BUSINESS LETTERS. 

Princeton, III., August 1st, 1869. 
Messrs. G. & C. W. Sherwood : 

The desks and settees ordered by me in June were re- 
ceived yesterday, in good condition. I find, by measurement 
of one of our rooms, that it will accommodate a few more 
pupils, and you will oblige me by forwarding immediately 
Twelve (12) single desks, folding seat, size B. 
I will remit the amount of your bill on receiot of the 

goods. 

Yours truly, 

William A. Dickinson, 
Chairman of Board of Education* 



Dover, Bureau Co., III., July 10th, 1869. 

Messrs. Hurd and Houghton : 

Please change the address of the " Riverside Magazine," 

sent me at this place, to Sabula, Jackson Co., Iowa, and 

oblige, 

Yours respectfully, 

William H. French. 

Messrs. Hurd and Houghton, 

459 Broome St, New York 



.} 



Alpine House, Gorham, N. H., ) 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 73 

FAMILIAR LETTERS. 

House, 
July 20th, 1869. 

Dear Mother : 

According to our promise we write you immediately 
after our arrival among the mountains. We are so tired 
with our long journey, and so much confused with the hund- 
reds of new and strange things that we have seen, that we 
have decided to wait until we are a little rested before writing 
you a full history of our journey. We can only tell you 
that we are too happy to think of being sick, and have al- 
ready seen more wonders than we supposed were in the 
whole world. With our best love to you and all the family. 
Your affectionate sons, 

George and Henry. 
Mrs. Ellen Marcy. 



Marietta, Ohio, June l&th, 1869. 
Dear Joe : 

You know that you owe me two letters already, but I 
have some good news to tell you, and so I write. Our Act- 
ive Base-Ball Club have just played a match game, and I 
send you enclosed a slip from our newspaper, which will tell 
you all about it. We won the game handsomely. I played 
second base, and did some pretty good batting. I made a 
clean score. I wish you had been here to cheer for us. This 
is all that I can afford to write you until you pay up. 

Your old friend, 

Harry McKee. 
Joseph Martin. 

§ 70. Common errors corrected. 

A few common errors are noted. Their infinite number prevents a 
full list. Let everv teacher firmly resolve to banish every one of them 

4 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



from his own speech, and from that of his pupils. Whenever and 
wherever they occur, in the school-room or out of it, make war upon 
them. Keep" the most common and most offensive posted on the black- 
board until they are overcome. 



WRONG EXPRESSION. 

When do you take up 

school ? 
I allowed to go. 
I could not git to go. 
We done our work. 
He seen him. 
There he sot. 
It was me. 
It was her. 
It was him or them. 
Who wants this ? Me. 
You had ought to go. 
Had I ought to go ? I think 

you had. 
Give me them books. 
Them molasses. 
He throw ed a stone. 
lie preached a funeral. 



I guess I will go. 

I reckon I will go. 

Last Tuesday was a week 



} 



You was there. 
I were there. 
He don't know nothing. 
Every man went to their 
house. 



CORRECT EXPRESSION. 

When do you begin or com- 
mence school ? 

I meant to go. 

I could not go. 

We did our work. 

He saw him. 

There he sat. 

It was I. 

It was she. 

It was he or they. 

Who wants this ? I. 

You ought to go. 

Ought I to go ? I think you 
ought. 

Give me those books. 

That molasses. 

He threw a stone. 

He preached a funeral ser- 
mon ; or, he conducted a 
funeral service. 

I think I shall go. 

Last Tuesday week ; or, a week 

ago last Tuesday. 
You were there. 
I was there. 
He knows nothing. 
Every man went to his 

house, 



INTERMEDIATE COURSE. 



75 



Who did you give it to ? 
The man which came. 
Set down and be quiet. 
I knowed it. 
I laid abed all day. 
Just as lives as not. 
Be present in our midst. 
A specie of shells. 
I have got my lesson. 
This here knife* 
That 'are book. 
Your book is wore out. 
He drawed a knife. 
Have you wrote an exercise? 
I hearn tell of it. 
He has done gone. 
I meant to have seen him. 
I hope to have visited you. 
We intended to have written. 
He said as how he bought it. 
They went for to find him. 
You might have went 
He learned me grammar. 
I and my father. 
Do like I do. 
A heap of people. 
Eight smart of corn. 
A good many. 
Quite warm. 

Between you and I. 
I haint got any. 



To whom did you give it ? 
The man who came. 
Sit down and be quiet. 
I knew it. 
I lay abed all day. 
Just as lief as not. 
Be present in the midst of us. 
A species of shell. 
I have my lesson. 
This knife. 
That book. 

Your book is worn out. 
He drew a knife. 
Have you written an exercise ? 
I have heard of it. 
He has already gone. 
I meant to see him. 
I hoped to visit you. 
We intended to write. 
He said that he bought it. 
They went to find him. 
You might have gone. 
He taught me grammar. 
My father and I. 
Bo as I do. 
A great many people. 
A great deal of corn. 
A great many. 

(Quite means exactly or com- 
pletely.) Very warm. 
Between you and me. 
I have none. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The dress sets well. The dress sits well, or Jits well. 

The hen sets on eggs. The hen sits on eggs. 

Require the pupils to write out a list of errors which they notice, 
and to correct them. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

What is a subject ? What is a predicate ? What is a 
sentence ? Does the order of words have any thing to do 
with the sense? Where does the subject of a sentence gen- 
erally stand ? Where the predicate ? When is a sentence 
said to be inverted ? What are the elements of a sentence ? 
Define analysis. Define parts of speech. How many classes 
of words ? Name them. Define a substantive. Define a 
noun. What is the difference between a noun and a sub- 
stantive ? What are verbs ? Explain the terms modify and 
limit Define an adjective. How is an adjective known ? 
How can the part of speech of any word be known ? How 
is a thing described? How many kinds of adjectives, and 
what are they ? If an adjective stand as the subject of a 
sentence, what is omitted ? Is a noun ever wsed as an ad- 
jective? What is a simple subject? Of what part of speech 
is it? What is a modified subject? What is a simple predi- 
cate ? Of what part of speech is it ? What are adjective 
modifiers ? What are verbal modifiers ? What is a clause ? 
What is a phrase ? Give examples. What are adverbs ? 
What do they modify ? Give examples. What do verbal 
modifiers generally express? What is an adjective clause? 
What is an adverbial clause? How do adjective clauses 
usually commence ? How do adverbial clauses usually com- 
mence ? 

What are pronouns ? What is meant by the antecedent 
of a pronoun? What are personal pronouns? Explain 
what is meant by person in grammar. Name the pronouns 
of the first, second, and third persons. What are the rela- 
tive pronouns? Where do they generally stand? Where 
is the antecedent of a relative to be found ? What are the 
compound personal pronouns, and how are they formed ? 
What is an interrogative sentence ? * What are the interro- 
gative pronouns ? Where is the antecedent of an interroga- 
tive pronoun found ? 



INTERMEDIATE COORSE. 77 

For what are prepositions used? Name the common pre- 
positions ? Name the prepositions which have opposites. 
What is the subsequent of a preposition? What do a pre- 
position and its subsequent usually modify ? What preposi- 
tion with its subsequent usually modifies a noun ? What are 
conjunctions? What are the common conjunctions? What 
other words are used to connect clauses to sentences ? What 
are exclamations ? Give, examples. 

What is the root of a word ? When is a word said to be 
derived from another ? How are words derived from other 
words ? What is inflection ? What classes of words are 
inflected? What is the singular number? What is the 
plural number ? How is the plural formed from the singu- 
lar ? When is a noun called a possessive? How is the 
possessive formed in the singular? How in the plural? 
What preposition and subsequent often mean the same as 
the possessive ? What three relations of nouns are expressed 
by change of ending ? Define declension. 

How may verbs be varied in form ? What is expressed 
by these variations ? What is tense ? What are the divis- 
ions of time? What is conjugation ? What do the active 
voice forms show? What is indicated by the passive 
voice forms? What are participles? How many has a 
verb ? In what does the imperfect participle end ? How 
does the perfect participle end ? What is the difference be- 
tween a verbal adjective and any other adjective ? What 
is a compound participle ? How is a clause sometimes short- 
ened by the use of a participle ? What other use has the 
verbal adjective in ing? What is the infinitive ? 

What is comparison ? What parts of speech are compared ? 
Define the positive decree. Define the comparative, the 
superlative. How is the comparative formed ? How the 
superlative ? Are all adjectives compared ? Give examples 
of adjectives which can not be compared. What is a diminu- 
tive ? In what do diminutives end ? Give examples. What 
are abstract nouns ? From what are they derived, and in 
what do they end ? 

What is a declarative sentence ? What is an interrogative 
sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? Define a 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

simple, a compound, and a complex sentence. Give exam- 
ples. 

Define ellipsis. In what sentences is it most common ? 
Give examples. 

What is included in the date of a letter ? Where should 
the date be placed ? When may the state, or county, be left 
out of the date ? In writing from cities or large towns, what 
is included in the date ? Give examples of dates properly 
written. Where does the address stand ? How is the date 
punctuated ? How is the address punctuated ? Where is a 
margin left blank ? Give examples of the address of a letter. 
Give examples of the signature of letters. Direct an en- 
velope properly to the publishers of this book. 



Common School Gbammar 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

The pupils who commence this part should be familiar with the In- 
termediate part, or its equivalent. They should know the elements of 
the sentence and the parts of speech, and should have the idea of in- 
flection and modification. The teacher should continue to require 
abundant illustration, constant written practice, and frequent reviews, 
and require examples to be taken from books in common use which 
will illustrate every point. 

Correcting printers' proof-sheets is a very valuable exercise. The 
first proofs abound in mis-spelled words, inverted letters, faulty punc- 
tuation, improper use of capitals, different kinds of type mixed, and in 
omissions which materially affect the sense. In correcting these errors, 
the pupil learns practical grammar, and fixes the all- important habit 
of close, patient attention. Very likely the pupils will not observe every 
error, but they will improve rapidly by practice. 

LESSON XV. 

§ 71. Language is that by which thought 
and feeling are expressed. It includes signs, 
gestures, expressions of countenance, pictures or 
other symbols, inarticulate sounds, and words. 

Generally when language is spoken of, the language of words is 
meant. Brutes have a kind of language, expressed by motions and 
inarticulate sounds. The deaf and dumb have a language of signs. 

A Word is the written or spoken symbol of 
an idea. 

An 1 dea is a mental picture. The name of a person 
with whom we are acquainted, calls up in mind a kind of 

(79) 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

image of the person. In the same way we picture to our- 
selves unreal objects, or objects which we have never seen. 
The word is the sign of this picture. Different languages 
employ different signs for the same idea. 

§ ?2. ©ramiiiar treats of the £&cts 9 laws, 

and rules of language. 

General Grammar treats of facts which 
are common to all languages. 

The facts in regard to the sentence given in § 1, are the same in all 
languages, and belong to general grammar. 

English Grammar treats of the facts, laws, 
and rules of the English language. 

A Law is a fact which applies to a whole class of words ; a Rule is a 
guide in the use of language. It is a law of the language that abstract 
nouns (§57) are derived from adjectives; it is arw/e that the relative 
pronoun stands after its antecedent. 

Language is usually divided into Oral and 
Written. Oral language is spoken, and is 
addressed to the ear ; written language is ad- 
dressed only to the eye. 

§ 73. Grammar is divided into four parts. 

Orthography, which treats of Letters. 

Etymology, which treats of Words. 

Syntax, which treats of Sentences. 

Prosody, which treats of Accent, Phuc- 
tuation, and Vers Meat ion. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 81 

LESSON XVI. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§ 74. Orthography treats of elementary 

sounds and the letters which represent them, 
of syllables, and of spelling. 

The sounds of the language and its pronunciation are often treated 
under a separate head called Orthoppy. Pupils are expected to learn 
most of Orthography from Readers and Spellers, and to learn the 
sounds thoroughly. 

The English language has forty-three elemen- 
tary sounds. These sounds are expressed to the 
eye by twenty-six different characters, called 
letters. The letters of a language are called 
its Alphabet. 

Since forty-three sounds are represented by twenty-six letters, it fol- 
lows that either some letters must represent more than one sound, or 
that some sounds must be represented by two or more letters combined. 
Notice that the name of the letter is not the sound of the letter. 

§ 75. There are four principal styles of let- 
ters. 
Roman, A, a ; B, b ; C, c ; D, d ; E, e ; F, f. 

Italic, A, a; B, b; (7, c; D, d; E, e; F. 

Each letter is represented by two characters, differing in 
size, and generally in form. The great body of written or 
printed matter is made up of small letters. For rules for 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the use of the larger letters, called Capitals see the 
Appendix. 

Italics are used to express emphasis. Emphatic words 
are sometimes commenced with a capital letter. FiilE- 
faced type is employed in school books to attract the 
attention to important words. In script, the underscore is 
employed to denote emphasis. 

§ 76. Sounds are divided into two classes, 

Vowel Sounds, and Consonant Sounds. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Con- 
sonants. 

A Vowel is a letter representing a sound 
which is uttered with the organs of speech open, 
and which can be prolonged. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents a 
sound that can not be uttered without bringing 
some of the organs of speech into contact. 

The Vowels are a, e, i ? o ? u ? w 9 and some- 
times y. The other letters are consonants. Y 
is a consonant at the beginning of a syllable. 

A Diphthong is a combination of two vow- 
els, and is uttered at a single impulse of the 
voice. 

In a 'pro'per diphthong both vowels are sounded ; as in 
boil ; in an improper diphthong one vowel is sounded ; as in 
beat, receive. 

§ 77. Consonants are divided into liquids 
and Mutes. 

The liquids are 1, m, n, r. They are also called Semi- 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 83 

vowel*, because they represent sounds which can be some' 
what prolonged. 

Mutes are sub-divided into 

1. Labials, (or /^-consonants) b, f, p, v. 

2. Gutturals, (or throat-con sonants) c hard, g, h, k, q. 

3. Unguals, (foft^e-consonants) d, j, t, s, z. 

S, z, and c soft, are called Sibilants, or hissing letters 

H is called an aspirate, or breathing, and is not a letter. 
C is soft, that is, has its hissing sound, before e, i, and y, and 
before the diphthong <z ; as in cent, city, cycle, Ccesar. Other- 
wise it is hard ; that is, it has the sound of h 

G is soft, or is sounded like j, before e, i, and y, in words 
derived from the Latin and Greek. Otherwise it is hard ; 
as in go, bag. 

A letter is silent when it has no sound ; as, h and w in 
know, t in often, n in hymn. 

§ 78, The sounds of the language are given 
below as classified into labials, gutturals, and 
Unguals. 

Labials. Gutturals. Unguals. 

SONANT, NON-SONANT. SONANT, NON-SONANT. SONANT, NON-SONANT. 

b. p. g. k. q. d. t. 

v. f. ph. ch hard. z. s. c soft. 

j. ch soft, 

zh, as sh. 
in azure, 

th, as th, as 

in this, in thin. 

Sonant consonants are seldom sounded with non-sonants, 
unless one or the other is changed in sound. Thus in the 
word slabs, the sonant b comes before the non-sonant s ; but 
in pronouncing, s has the sound of the corresponding z. In 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the word cupboard, the non-sonant p comes before the sonant 
b y and the word is pronounced as if written cubboard ; an 
easier word to speak. 

Euphony means agreeable sound, and changes 
made in spelling, or in sound, to make a word 
more pleasant to the ear, are called etrphonic 
changes. 

§ 79. A Syllable is a word, or a part of a 
word, uttered at one impulse of the voice ; with- 
out any break, or interruption of sound. A-way 
has two syllables ; im-in-tel-li-gi-ble has six. 

A word of one syllable is called a mono §yl I able ; a 
word of two syllables is a dissyllable ; and a word of three 
syllables is a trisyllable ; a word of mere than three sylla- 
bles is a polysyllable. 

The Accent of a word is an emphatic utter- 
ance of one of its syllables; as, hard-ly, sub-?mi 

Spelling is the expression of a word % by its 
proper letters. Phonic spelling, or spelling by 
sounds, is the expression of a word by its ele- 
mentary sounds. 

Spelling by rule involves the study of prefixes and suffixes. The 
Rules of spelling are contained in the appendix. Spelling lessons 
should generally be written. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



LESSON XVII. 

§ 80. Etymology treats of the Meaning, 
Derivation, Classification, Inflection, 
and History of words. 

The meaning of a word is learned by its 
nse, by its derivation, or from a diction- 
ary. 

Neither teacher nor pupil can afford to be without a dic- 
tionary. 

Derivation treats of the Origin, primary 

meaning, and formation of words. 

The English language originated from the Anglo-Saxon 
and the ft ©rman-Frencli. It contains many words from 
the Latin and from the Greek. 

From the Anglo-Saxon come all our pronouns, prepositions, 
and conjunctions, and all verbs of the strong conjugation. 

§ 81. In respect to origin, words are classi- 
fied into Primitive, Derivative, Simple, 
and Compound. 

A Primitive word is not derived from any 
other word in the language ; as man, boy, strike. 

A Derivative word is formed from some 
other word in the language by prefixing or suffix- 

(85) 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing letters, or syllables, or by changing letters 
within the word; as, hoy -ish, man-fo/, tm-man, 
stroke. 

A primitive word from which other words are derived is 
called a stem. From the stem man are formed the deriva- 
tive words, manly, manful, unman, mannish, men. 

The root of a word is that part which remains unchangd 
in its derivatives. The root is generally made up of conso- 
nants. The vowels of a word are more subject to change 
than the consonants. 

A Simple word can not be separated into two or more 
words ; as, door, window, machine. 

A Compound word is made up of two or more simple 
words ; as, door-mat, window-sash, sewing-machine. 

In compound words the accent is upon the first part ; as, 
steam-boat, row-boat 

Let the pupils think out the reason of this. If they have a clear idea 
of emphasis, it will not be difficult. 

For the use of the hyphen between the parts of a compound word, 
see the subject of Punctuation. 

Words are sometimes compounded to express one mean- 
ing, and written separately to express another. For instance, 
a glass house is a house made of glass ; a glass-house is a 
house where glass is made. 

The teacher is expected to require of the class illustrations enough 
to fix every fact clearly in mind. When the pupil is able to bring to 
the class a considerable number of illustrations of his own selection, it 
is tolerably certain that he understands the principle. Require written 
illustrations, and a great many of them. 

§ 82. By the Classification of words is 
meant their arrangement in classes according to 
their use. The classes are called Parts of 
Speech. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 87 

There are eight classes of words in ^English, 
the Noun, the Verb, the Pronoun, the Ad- 
jective, the Adverb, the Preposition, the 
Conjunction, and the Exclamation. 

The specifying adjectives, an or a and the are sometimes called Arti- 
cles. The verbal adjective (§ 51,) is also made a separate part of speech 
by some authors, and called a Participle. 

A Noun is the name of an object, either of 
perception or of thought, and can itself be the 
subject of a sentence. 

A Verb is a word which, in some of its forms, 
can be used as the simple predicate of a sentence. 
Its office is to assert. It usually asserts the 
being, state, or action of the subject. 

A Pronoun is a word used to supply the 
place of a noun. 

An Adjective is a word which modifies a 
substantive by naming a quality or attribute, 
or by pointing out which, or how many are 
meant. 

An Adverb is a word whose office is to 
modify a verb, a sentence, or some word which 
is not a substantive. 

A Preposition is a word which connects a 
substantive to some word which is modified by 
the preposition and its subsequent. 

A Conjunction is a word whose office is to 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

connect words, plirases, clauses, and sen- 
tence?. 

An Exclamation is a word used by itself 
to express emotion or feeling, — forming no part 
of the sentence. 

The Theme of a word is that form which is 
used as the name of the word ; or, as the start- 
ing-point from which other forms are derived 
by inflection. 

Thus who is the theme of the relative pronoun, from which 
come the forms whose and whom. From the theme write 
come the forms wrote, writing, written. 

§ 83. By Inflection is meant that change 
of form which words undergo to express change 
in their relations to other words, or in their 
meaning. If a change is expressed by a sepa- 
rate word, the word changed is modified, not 
inflected. 

Wise, taken as a theme, has the inflected forms wiser, 
wisest. His and him are inflections of the theme he. 

§ 84. The History of a word tells its origin, 
its primary meaning, and the changes which it 
has undergone. 

Thus knave first meant boy, then servant, now rascal. 

An Obsolete word is one which was once in 
good use, but is not now. An Obsolescent 
word is one which is going out of use. 

Leasing, meaning lying, is obsolete ; pate for head, is obsolescent. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 89 

LESSON XVIII. 

THE NOUN. 

§ 85. A Noun is a substantiTe name, or 
the name of an object. It includes the names 
of all things which exist, or are spoken of as 
existing. 

A Substantire is any word or group of 
words which is used as a subject of a sentence, 
an object of a verb, or a subsequent of a prepo- 
sition. 

In grammatical analysis many sentences are formed whose subjects 
are phrases, or words used out of their common use. These subjects 
should be called substantives, or substantive phrases. In analyzing the 
sentence, " Will go is the predicate," call will go a substantive phrase. 

Nouns are divided into Common and 
Proper, 

A Common noun is the name of a class 
which may include a great number of individ- 
uals; as, city, state, boy. . 

A Proper noun is the name of one object, 
distinguishing it from all others of its class ; as, 
Peoria, Illinois, William. 

The name of the class may be applied to any object in 
the class. If the proper name of a person is not known, 
we address him by a common name ; as friend, stranger, 
sir. His proper name is his own name ; it belongs to 
him alone. 

A proper noun becomes common when made to apply 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to a CIa§§; a common noun becomes proper when applied 
exclusively to an individual. 

There are six Williams in the school. 

Williams is a common noun, because applied to a class. 

Mr. Field bought the field. 

The subject Mr. Field is a proper noun, belonging to one 
man. 

§ 86. Common nouns are subdivided into 
Abstract, Collective, Verbal, and Dimin- 
utive. 

An Abstract noun is the substantive name 
of a quality, derived from a descriptive adjec- 
tive. Abstract nouns generally end in ne§s as 
in kindness j th as in truth; ce or cy as in 
prudence, clemency ; in ity as in ability. They 
are seldom used in the plural, or in the posses- 
sive form. 

A Collective noun has a singular form, but 
is applied to a number of individuals ; as, flock, 
army, host 

A Verbal noun admits the modifiers of a 
verb. In form it may be either the Participle 
(§ 51), or the Infinitive (§ 54). 

Playing foot-ball is violent exercise. Learning Latin is 
not easy. To hear and to see are very different. 

A Diminutive is a derivative noun denot- 
ing a small thing of the kind expressed by its 
primitive (§56). The diminutive endings are 
et 5 kin, loek, ling, el, ie. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 91 

Ex. — Floweret, mannikin, hillock, duckling, petrel (that 
is, little Peter, because it walks on the water), wifie, Mattie. 
Ling sometimes denotes contempt, as in lordling. Dimin- 
utives frequently express endearment 
Let the pupils give examples. 

A group of names not compound applied to 
a single person, forms a Complex noun ; as, 
President William Henry Harrison; Marcus 
Tullius Cicero. 

LESSON XIX. 

INFLECTION OF THE NOUN. 

§ 87. Nouns are inflected (§ 83), or change their 
forms, to distinguish a name which denotes more than one from 
a name which denotes one object. This is called the inflec- 
tion of Number (§ 40). 

They are also inflected to denote the relation of Posses- 
sion (§ 43). This is called the inflection of Case. 

A few nouns are inflected to denote a difference in Sex. 
This is called the inflection of €»ender. 

The Inflection of a noun is called Declension. 

Number, ©cnder, and Case are called 

Attributes of a noun. Person (§28) is also 

called an attribute of nouns, but is not indicated 

by inflection. 

The principal use of a knowledge of these attributes is to 
determine the pronoun, which should be used in place 
of the noun, and the form of the verb to which the noun is 
subject. 



92 ENGLISH GUA31MAK. 

§ 88. The name of a single object is said to be in the 
Singular number. The singular number is the theme of 
the noun. 

A name including more than One object of its class is in 
the Plural number. • 

The plnraB form is derived from the singular by ad- 
ding § ; as, book, books; house, houses. 

If § will not unite in sound with the final letter of the 
theme, es is added ; as, match, matches. 

Nouns ending in s, §h 9 x, and cii soft, add es; as box-es, 
brush-es, church-es, gas-es. 

Some nouns ending in/, form the plural by adding esand 
changing f into v ; as, loaf, loaves ; knife, knives. Others 
add s without change off 

Form the plural of thief, chief, dwarf, sheaf, turf, life, hoof, 
leaf, roof, wife. 

Wharf has both wharves and wharfs in the plural. 

Nouns ending in o generally form their plural in es 9 but 
there are exceptions ; as, folio, grotto, portico, which form 
their plurals in s. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y to i, 
and add es ; as, city, cities. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, add s, without 
change of y ; as, days, turkeys, chimneys. 

A few nouns form their plural by enanging the vowel ; 
as, man, men ; tootli, teetn. Plurals thus formed are 
called strong plurals ; that is, they make their changes 
wilhin the word ; without the aid of endings. 

A few nouns have a plural ending en ; as, oxen, childmz. 
Housen for houses, is ©fosoflete (§ 84). 

Compounds ending in man, change man into men to form 
their plural ; as, alderman, seaman. But German, Turco- 



• COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 93 

man, Mussulman, and talisman, are not compounds of man, 
and add s in the plural. 

§8®. A few nouns have double plurals. 

Brother, brothers (of a family), brethren (of a society). 

Die, dies (for coining), dice (for gaming). 

Index, indexes (of books), indices (signs of powers). 

Pea, peas (individuals), . pease (different kinds). 

Penny, pennies (coins), pence (value). 

Cow, cows, kine (only in poetry). 

Genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). 

Staff, staves (sticks), staffs (officers). 

Many foreign words-retain their original plural ; as, genus, 
genera. No rules can be given for their inflection. 

Some foreign words have an English plural, and also re- 
tain their original ; as cherub, cherubs, or cherubim (never 
cherubims). 

Letters and figures form their plural by adding s, preceded 
by an apostrophe ; as, Cross your fs, and dot your i's. Make 
your 9's closed at the top. 

Nouns denoting things weighed or measured, used in their 
common sense, have no plural idea, and, of course, no plural 
form ; as, wheat, gold, sugar. If used in the plural, they 
either denote different kinds ; as, wines, teas ; or, things made 
of the material ; as irons, brasses. Names of chemical ele- 
ments have no plural ; as, oxygen, iodine. 

Abstract nouns have no plural. CoBIective nouns 
sometimes express plurality without the plural form. 

Some nouns have no plural form, but are used in both 
numbers ; as, deer, sheep, trout. (Give other examples.) 

Some nouns have only the plural form ; as, victuals, embers, 
ashes. In this class are several names of objects made up 
of two corresponding parts ; as, tongs, drawers, scissors. 
(Give other examples.) 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Some nouns which seem to have plural forms are always 
singular ; as, molasses, measles, news. 

§ 9®. In Compound nouns the plural ending is an- 
nexed to that part which is really made plural ; as man-trap, 
man-traps ; father-in-law, fathers-in-law. 

When proper nouns are preceded by a title before which 
a specifying or a numeral adjective stands, the name is 
made plural and not the title; as, our six General Smiths ; 
the two Miss Chapins. 

Whenever the same 4 surname is annexed to two or more 
Christian names, preceded by a title, or whenever the same 
title includes different persons, the title is made plural ; as? 
Misses Mary and Ellen Brown ; Messrs. George and James 
Harper ; Generals Meade, Banks, and Butler. 

In other cases, eitlier the name or the title may be made 
plural ; as, the Misses Thompson ; or, the Miss Thompsons. 
Usage inclines to the latter form when the name does not 
end in s. 

When words are used substantively they form the plural 
in s or es ; as, the whys and the wherefores. In long com- 
pounds, the s is added to the last word; as, will-o'-the-wisps. 

Correct the following plurals : 
oxes, thiefs, turkies, chirimies, Mussulmen, ladys, 
heros, deers, negros, potatos, gooses, housen, 

9s, xs. 

Write the plurals of the following : 
attorney, brother, lynx, calf, Mary, , monarch, 

pony, Mr. Brown, court-martial, path, valley, 

foot, fife. 

Write the possessive plural forms of the following nouns : 
woman, ox, child, mother, priest, 

lady, countess, pupil, scholar, man. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 95 



LESSON XX. 



GENDER AND CASE. 



§91. Nouns are divided according to the sex of the 
beings named by them, into two classes, or Cienclers. 

The only use of this classification is to determine what 
pronoun is to be used in place of a noun in the third person 
and singular number. If the sex is determined by the mean- 
ing of the word, the gender is Natural : if the ending of 
the word in any way denotes the sex, the gender is Gram- 
matical. 

Nouns denoting male beings are of the 
Masculine gender ; nouns denoting female 
beings are of the Feminine gender. 

Names of objects without sex, or whose sex is unimportant, 
are of the Neuter gender. 

Names applied to beings of either sex are sometimes said 
to be of the Common gender ; as, child, parent, cousin, 
pupil. 

Nouns which are inflected to denote gender, change the 
masculine ending into ess, ine, or rix, to denote the corres- 
ponding feminine. Ess is the only English ending, the 
others belong to foreign words. Sometimes the endings are 
added to the masculine form. 

Ex. — Actor, actress ; hunter, huntress ; count, countess ; 
Joseph, Josephine ; Wilhelm, Wilhelmine ; hero, heroine ; 
executor, executrix ; administrator, administratrix. 

Some foreign words have other endings. 

Such words as uncle, aunt, king, queen, beau, belle, have 
natural gender, and the pronoun to be used for them is known 
by their meaning, not by their ending. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Sex is often ascribed to things without life by a figure 
called Pcrsonificationt Objects remarkable for strength, 
violence, or size, are usually made masculine ; those remark- 
able for grace, delicacy, or beauty, are made feminine. Thus, 
the sun, the wind, the winter, the frost, are masculine ; the 
moon, the rose, the lily, the spring, are feminine. 

In ordinary speech animals are masculine or feminine, ac- 
cording to their leading attributes. Thus the lion and ele- 
phant are generally masculine ; the cat is generally feminine. 

The masculine gender is used for all general statements 
including both sexes ; as, " All men are mortal ;" " No man 
cares for him." 

Names of countries t©wn§ 9 and colleges are always 
personified as feminine ; since they are regarded as stand- 
ing in a motherly relation to their inhabitants, or pupils ; as, 
"Our country calls on her sons," "Jerusalem poured out her 
countless thousands," " Old Harvard (College) calls her 
children home." 

§ ©£§ 9 By the €a§e of a noun is meant the relation 
in which it stands to other words, and to the sentence. 

The word Ca§e properly means ending, and was intro- 
duced into our language from a language in which different 
relations are indicated by different endings. There is no 
necessity for retaining it when speaking of nouns. Some 
pronouns have three endings, expressing three relations. 

A noun in a sentence may be related to the 
sentence as Subject; to another noun, as Pos- 
sessive or Appositive ; to a verb as Object ; 
to a preposition as SMtoseqnent ; or it may 
stand as a part of the Predicate. (See § 176.) 

The noun has two forms in each number ; one 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 97 

for the Possessive, and one for all the other 
relations. 

Those who use the name of case for the relations call the 
subject the Nominative ca§e ; the object of a verb, or 
the subsequent of a preposition, the Objective ca§e 9 and 
a noun in the possessive relation, the Po§ses§ive ca§e. 

But it is better to drop the term Ca§e in analyzing, and 
to speak of a noun as Subject, Object, Subsequent, 
or a Posse§§ive. 

The Possessive gingnlar is formed by an- 
nexing to the theme the ending s, preceded by 
an apostrophe ; as, ship, ship's ; river, river's. 

The apostrophe shows the omission of a vowel (e or i) which in old 
English formed a part of this ending. 

Plural nouns ending in s make their Pos- 
sessive form by adding the apostrophe ; as, 
farmers' wives ; eagles' wings. 

Plural nouns not ending in s make their Pos- 
sessive form by adding § preceded by the apos- 
trophe ; as women's. 

Sometimes when a noun in the singular, of more than one 
syllable, ends in a sibilant, it adds the apostrophe only, espe- 
cially before a word beginning with. 5, to avoid too many 
hissing sounds ; as Achilles' shield ; Moses' disciples ; con- 
science' sake. 

Complex and Compound nouns, and nouns with mod- 
ifying phrases regarded as one title, add the possessive end- 
ing to the last word ; as, John Paul Jmes' ship ; a Major- 
GeneraVs commission ; the King of England's crown ; Smith 
the bookseller's store. 
5 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 93. A word given as a model by which to 
inflect other words is called a Paradigm. 

FULL INFLECTION OF A NOUN. 

Singular Plural. 

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. 
(General form, hero, heroine, heroes, heroines, 
Po§ses§£ve, hero's, heroine's, heroes', heroines'. 

INFLECTION OF A NOUN WITHOUT GENDER. 
Singular. Plural. 

General form, river, rivers, 

Posses§i¥e, river's, rivers'. 



LESSON XXL 

THE VERB. 

§ 94. A Verb is a word whose office is to 
as§ert 5 and which usually asserts the esist- 
eifjfe, action, or stete of its subject. 

The word Yerh means word, and was given to this part 
of speech as the most important. In the Latin language, 
from which we derive the names of our parts of speech, it 
was frequently used alone as a complete sentence. Other 
words are of equal importance in meaning, but no other 
words can as§ert. 

As verbs are necessary in every sentence, and as actions 
admit of more variations than objects, the verb has more 
variations of form than any other part of speech. 

The theme of the verb is that form which admits the 
preposition to before it ; as, to have, to see. This form is 
called the Infinitive, or unlimited form, and is generally a 
substantive. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 99 

Verbs have also Adjective forms, called P$articiple§ ; 
as, a la boring man ; & printed -page. Participles are distin- 
guished from other adjectives by their form, their derivation, 
and their modifiers. 

From the same theme, then, we have a§§ertive form-, 
or verbs proper, §ufo§tamlve forms, and Adjective forms. 

The Infinitive and Participle sometimes imply assertion 
(§ 52), but do not make it directly. 

§ 95. The Inflection of a verb is called its 
Conjugation. 

Verbs are inflected to give a Substantive 
form, and two Adjective forms ; to show the 
time of the act or state asserted ; and to indi- 
cate the Person and Number of the subject. 

Verbs have two Adjective forms ; the Imperfect or 

incomplete, and the Perfect or complete form. 

(The Imperfect is sometimes called the Present, and the Perfect the 
Past participle.) 

The Imperfect participle is formed from the theme by 
adding ing ; as, do-tsag, be-fng", chang(e)-ing-. 

This form is also used as a Substantive ; as, 
Running is violent exercise. When so used it 
is called a Gerund, or a Verbal Noun. 

The perfect Participle is formed from the theme by the 
endings ed, and en. Eel sometimes becomes d or t, and 
en becomes n. Examples : 

Loved, saved, paid, dealt, discovered. 

Written thrown, given, seen, known. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 96. The principal inflection of the verb is 
to express the time of the thing asserted, and 
its state as complete, or as fineowipleteo 

Hence, in German, verbs arc called time-words. 

The forms of the verbs which express time, are called 
Tense forms, or, simply, Tenses. 

Time is naturally divided into present, past, and fu- 
ture ; and any act may be spoken of as complete or 
incomplete at any time. Therefore six time-forms or 
tense-forms, at least, are needed, viz. : 

PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE. 

Complete. Complete. Complete. 

Incomplete. Incomplete. Incomplete. 

Those forms of the verb which express the assertion by a 
single word, are called simple tenses. 

Write, sing, bought, told, are simple tenses because each 
word may make an assertion by itself. 

Compound tenses are made up of the Participle and 
Infinitive forms of the verb, combined with certain other 
verbs which make an incomplete assertion. 

May write, can write, will write, do write, has written, am 
writing, are examples of compound tense-forms of the verb 
write. 

§ 97. The English verb has two simple tenses ; 
called the Present and the Past. 

The Present tense is used for general assertions, and may 
be used for either present, past, or future time. The sun 
rises in the East, means that it does generally; has risen 
there in the past, and will rise there in the future. I go to 
St. Louis to-morrow, implies future time. A historian de- 
scribing a battle, speaks thus of the commander : " He comes 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 101 

in all haste, finds every thing in confusion." He uses the 
present as if the actions mentioned were going on in our 
sight. 

The Past Tense is used to assert that some- 
thing is wholly past ; as, I ivrote it yesterday ; 
He gave me the ball ; We climbed the mountain. 

In the sentence, "I saw him this morning," 
the action of seeing is wholly past, although the 
time mentioned may not be. 

In the Past Tense, the action or state is asserted as simply past . It 
denotes completion, but does not use a complete participle, as all the 
tenses do which are called perfect. 

The past tense corresponds to the aorist of the Greek, and the perfect 
indefinite of the Latin. 

§ 98, Present Tense Forms. 

SINGULAR. 

1st person. I go, write, walk, do. 
3d person. He (she, it,) goes, writes, walks, 
does. 

PLURAL. 

1st person. We go, write, walk, do. 
2d person. You go, write, walk, do. 
3d person. They go, write, walk, do. 

The above are the common forms. Notice 
that the only change from the form of the theme 
is made in the 3d person singular, which adds s 
or es to the theme. 

The second person singular which is used only 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in solemn style, and in poetry, adds the endings 
st or est to the theme; thus : 

Thou goest, writest, walkest, dost, or doest, 
In solemn style and in poetry, the third person 
sometimes takes the endings th, or ©th 5 as, 

He goeth, writeth, walketh, doth, or doeth. 

§ 99. There are two methods of forming the 
past tense of verbs. Most verbs form it by ad- 
ding d or ed to the theme; as, 

Theme. move, live, form, change, count, 
Past Tense, moved, lived, formed, changed, counted. 

These endings are sometimes shortened into t ; as, builded, 
built ; passed, past. 

The Past Participle of all such verbs has the same form 
as the past tense. 

Such verbs are of the weak or Regular 

conjugation. 

Some verbs — mostly of one syllable, and all 
of Anglo-Saxon origin — form their past tense 
by changing the vowel sound of the theme, 
and form their Past Participle by adding n or 
en to the theme, or to the Past Tense; as, 

Theme. draw, grow, ride, fall, drive. 

Past Tense. drew, grew, rode, fell, drove. 

The past participle of such verbs generally ends in n, or 
en. 

Such verbs are of the Strong or Irregular 

conjugation. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 



103 



For convenience, we call verbs weak and strong, instead of saying 
of the weak, or of the strong conjugation. 

The theme, the past tens©, and the past 

participle, are called the Priiaeipal Farts 
of a verb. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 



[ Weak Conjugation. 




PAST TENSE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE 


changed, 


changed. 


paid, 


paid. 


ha(ve)d, 


had. 


asked, 


asked. 


gilt, 


gilt. 


Strong Conjugation. 




knew, 


known. 


rose, 


risen. 


saw, 


seen. 



THEME. 

Change, 

Pay, 

Have, 

Ask, 
Gild, 



Know, 

Eise, 

See, 

§ 10®. The Past Tense has but one form, except that 
the second person singular, (rarely used,) has the ending st. 
Thus, the form walked may be used with I, he, she, it, we. 
you, or they, as its subject. Thou walkedstf may be found in 
old English, or may be used in the solemn style or in poetry. 

The endings s, es, st, th, are called personal endings, and 
should be used only with the proper persons and numbers. 

Correct the errors in ending in the following : 

Thinks I. Up comes three men. Thou advises ill. 
Hence arises these mistakes. Many a man come hither. 
He dost well. Thou knoweth all things. Says I. ' 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXII. 
§ 101. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 

Before taking up compound verbal forms, it seems necessary to dis- 
cuss a relation of the verb which belongs to Syntax rather than to 
Etymology. 

In such expressions as It seems ; I may ; That looks ; He 
teas informed ; His name is ; I gave ; Franklin is called ; 
The merchant sold ; there is a subject and a verb, or the ele- 
ments of a sentence, and yet the sentence is not complete. 
An affirmation is made, but something more is needed to 
complete the sense. 

Any thing which completes the sense of a 
verb, (or of any other word,) is called a Com- 
plement. 

The expressions given above may be filled out thus : It 
seems strange. I may go. That looks well. He was in- 
formed of the fact. His name is Charles. I gave a dime. 
Franklin is called a sage, or, is called wise. The merchant 
sold his store. The italicized words are Complements. 

Some verbs admit only an adjective complement; as, he 
looks pleasant, the apple tastes soar, I feel cold. 

Some verbs admit only the infinitive complement ; as, may 
go, can read, shall hear, must spell, dare say, ought to attend. 

Some verbs admit either a noun or an adjective comple- 
ment ; as, he is called good, he is called a mechanic ; Henry 
is honest, Henry is a student. 

Some verbs admit either an infinitive or a noun comple- 
ment; as, he did learn; he tried to walk; he did his work. 

Some verbs take either a noun or a clause as a comple- 
ment ; as, they said their lessons ; they said that it was not so. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 105 

Some verbs admit an adverb or an adjunct as a comple- 
ment ; as, he is here ; he is at home. 

Many verbs can be used either with or without a comple- 
ment ; as, fire burns (no complement necessary) ; we burn 
coal (complement necessary). % 

§ 162. The substantive complement of a 
verb which does not admit an adjective comple- 
ment is called the Direct object. 

A verb is said to be Transitive when it re- 
quires no object. If it requires no object, it is 
Intransitive. 

The transitive verb is also called Active, and the intrans- 
itive verb is called Meuter. The dictionaries mark a verb 
which is usually transitive v. a. ; that is, a verb active ; and 
other verbs v. n. ; that is, verb neuter. But the use of the 
verb in the sentence must determine. Strike expresses vig- 
orous action, but is sometimes intransitive, as in the sentence, 
" Strike for your altars and your fires !" The object of a 
verb may be developed by the question whom or what f 

Whom did you see ? I saw the Governor (object of saw). 

We heard that you were going. What did you hear? 
That you were going, (The clause is the object of heard.) 

The object is often an infinitive, a clause, or an entire 
sentence ; as, She heard what he said. He said " I will go." 

A customary object is often omitted ; as, The farmer plows 
(the ground), and sows (the seed). The trader buys and 
sells (goods). 

Care must be taken to distinguish the object from a noun 
forming part of the predicate. If the verb admits an adjec- 
tive complement, it is not transitive. In the sentence, He 
is a sailor, sailor answers* the question, What is he ? but it 
is not an object, for is admits an adjective complement. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This subject will be referred to again under Pronouns and under 
Syntax. 

The object is often called an element of the sentence, but 
it is not an essential element. 

The pronoun complement of an intransitive verb has the 
nominative form. 



LESSON XXIII. 

IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

§ 1©3. Verbs which do not form the prin* 
cipal parts according to the models given in 
Lesson XXI, are called Irregwlar. 

Verbs which are not used in all their parts 
are called Defective. 

The most irregular verb in the language is be, whose con- 
jugation is given below: 

Principal parts, toe, was, been. 
Present tense, singular number, am, art, i§. 

Present tense, plural number, are in all persons. 

Past tense, singular number, was, wast, was. 

Past tense, plural number, were in all persons. 

Have is irregular by dropping the v before the endings, 
except before ing* 

Present tense, sing., I have, thou ha(ve)st, he ha(ve)s. 
Present tense, plural, liave in all persons. 
Past tense, singular, ha(ve)d, liadst, had, etc. 

Past tense, plural, liad in all persons. 

£*© has no past tense, but supplies its place by borrowing 
from the verb wend. 

Past tense, I went, thou wentest, etc. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 107 

The following verbs want the infinitive and the participles, 
and are irregular in their past tense: 

Theme, may, can, must, shall, will,* ought. 
Fa§t, might, could, must, should, would, ought. 

Errors in the use of the forms of be are frequent. The most com- 
mon mistake is to use the singular form of the verb instead of the 
plural ; as, we was, you was, instead of we were, you were. The pupil „ 
should be taught to give the reason for the correction. Thus : 

We was is incorrect, because the singular form was is used with the 
plural subject we. 

A singular form must not be used with a plural, nor with 
a compound subject, nor a plural form with a singular 
subject. 

Correct the following : 

I were going home. You was with him. Where was 
you yesterday ? Were it John ? Had thou been there ? 
We was out skating yesterday. 

The obsolete form be is often incorrectly used instead of 
the present tense forms of the verb be ; as, Be you going ? 
Be we men ? 

Be is correctly used in imperative sentences ; as, Be still ! 

§ 104. There are four compound tenses in 
English; the Present Perfect, the Fast 
Perfect, the Future, and the Future Per- 
fect. 

The Present Perfect affirms that something is complete 

at the present time. The form is made up of the present 

tense of the verb have combined with the past participle of 

any verb ; as, 

I have, thou hast, he has ) „ , 
' \ > walked. 

We, you, or they have ) 

If any modifier denoting time is used with the present ** 
perfect, that time must include the time at which the asser- 

* Will in the sense of wish is regular. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tion is made. We must not say, " We have seen you yester- 
day" because yesterday does not include the time at which 
the assertion is made. " We have seen you this morning" 
is correct in form, if the assertion is made in the morning. 

The IPa§t Perfect affirms that something was finished 
at or before some past time mentioned. The form is made 
up of the past tense of have, and the past participle of any 
verb ; as, 

I had, thou hadst, he had ) „ , 
' ' y walked* 

We, you, or they had ) 

The iFuture Tense is made up of the verbs shall and 
will combined with the infinitive of any verb ; as, 
I shall, thou wilt, he will ) ., 



} 



We shall, you will, they will 

To express simple futurity, shall is used in the first person, 
and will in the second and third. Will in the first person, 
and shall in the second and third, express determination. 

The foreigner who fell into the water and cried; " I will 
drown ; nobody shall help me," declared that he intended to 
drown, and to receive no help. 

The Future Perfect, or complete future, asserts that 
something will be complete, or finished, at some specified fu- 
ture time. The form is made up of shall or will, as in the 
simple future, the infinitive have, and the past participle of 
any verb ; as, 

I shall, thou wilt, he will \ ^^ wa|ked . 

We shall, you will, they will ) 

§ 1©S. Examples of Tenses. 

Present. Fire burns. Birds fly. He doeth all things 
well. 

Past. She fainted. They passed by. Jesus wept. 

Present Perfect, You have come at last. I have 
seen him to-day. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 109 

Pa§t Perfect, He had gone before I reached the 
office. You had just crossed the street when I saw you. 

Future. It will rain. I shall expect you. This will 
certainly happen. You will fall. 

Future Perfect, We shall have finished our task be- 
fore you return. He will, doubtless, have seen your father 
before this time. 

The infinitive of liavc? combined with the past participle 
of any verb, forms a perfect or complete infinitive ; as, 
to have written is the perfect infinitive of write. 

The present participle of have, combined with the per- 
fect participle of any verb, makes up the compound 
participle; as, having walked. 

§ 106. Conjugation of the Weak Verb 
Learn, 

( Present, learning. 

Participles. \ Past, learned. 

( Compound, having learned. 

^™-H To L^. earned. 

Present Tense. Singular. ( I learn, thou learnest, he learns. 
Plural. \ learn (for the three persons.) 

Past Tense. Singular. ( I learned, thou learnedst, he learned. 

Plural. I learn (in all persons.) 
Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular, j I have, thou hast, he has ) , -, 

Plural. ( have (in all persons.) J learnea - 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. { I had, thou hadst, he had ) , na -, 
Plural. \ had (in all persons.) J learaecl - 

Future Tense. 

Singular, i I shall, thou wilt, he will ) , 
Plural. \ We shall, you will, they will J ieam ' 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. ( I shall, thou will, he will (, , A 

Plural. \ We shall, you will, they will \ have learned ' 

Conjugate in the same way the weak verbs, use, help, 
unite, complete, happen, finish. 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Conjugate the strong verbs, fall, give, write, take, see, 
grow, rise. 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 

Let the pupils first learn the participles, as necessary in forming tin 
compound tenses ; then the simple tenses, and then the method of 
forming the compound tenses. The present and past of be and have 
should be very thoroughly learned. With the above forms fixed, the 
compound tenses are easy to form. 

After learning the forms in order, practice reversing the order, and 
calling for the tenses at random, till the pupils give the exact form 
without hesitation. In giving the third person form of any tense, do 
not let them suppose that he is the only pronoun to be used, nor that 
nouns cannot be used as subjects. Let the teacher also give the form, 
and require rhe pupils to name the tense promptly. 

In the compound tenses, the participles and infinitives, which can 
make no assertion, are really the auxiliaries of the verbs have, will, and 
shall, and other verbs which stand before them. But the usage seems 
fixed to call the assertive words the auxiliaries, and the others principal 
verbs. This probablv came, with many other of our grammatical 
notions, from the Latin and Greek. In these languages, numerous 
changes of ending express the same ideas as our compound tenses do, 
of person, number, tense, and voice. Hence the so-called auxiliaries 
are supposed to help out the meaning of the principal verb. 



LESSON XXIV. 

PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC FORMS OF THE VERB. 

§ 107. The Progre§§Ive form of the verb 
is made up of the tenses of the verb be, followed 
by the present participle. This form presents 
an action as in progress and unfinished. 

A Sye©p§i§ of a verb is the , giving of a sin- 
gle personal form in each tense. 

Synopsis', of the verb send. Progressive form, third per- 
son, singular. 

Present, is sending. .Present Perfect, have been sending. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. Ill 

Past, was sending. Past Perfect, had been sending. Future, 
will be sending. Future Perfect, will have been sending. 

Synopsis of write, 1st person singular, progressive form. 

I am writing, was writing, have been writing, had been 
writing, shall be writing, shall have been writing. 

§ 108. The Emphatic form of the verb is 
made up of the present and past tenses of the 
verb do, followed by the infinitive of the verb ; 
as, I do learn, I did try, he does see. 

This same form is used in questions ; as, Do you know it ? 
Did you see my friend ? It is then called the interrogative 
form of the verb. 

§ lOO. The Potential Form, of the verb is 
used in four tenses. It is made up of the de- 
fective verbs may, can, must, shall, and will, 
combined with the infinitives and compound 
participles of other verbs. 

Pre§ent Tense. Potential Form, of the verb write. 

SINGULAR. 

1st person. I may, can, must, or will write. 

2d person. Thou mayst, canst, must, or shalt write. 

3d person. He may, can, must, or shall write. 

PLURAL. 

1st person. We may, can, must, or will write. 
2d person. You may, can, must, or shall write. 
3d person. They may, can, must, or shall write. 

Past Tense* Potential Form. 

i 1st person. I might, could, would, or shoidd write. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2d person. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
write. 

3d person. He might, could, woidd, or should write. 
Plural, for all persons. 

Might, coidd, ivoidd, or should write. 

The Pre§ent Perfect Tense of the Potential Form is 
formed from the present, by substituting the compound par- 
ticiple for the infinitive ; as, I may have written. 

The Past Perfect Tense of the Potential Form is 
formed from the past, by substituting the compound partici- 
ple for the infinitive ; as, I might have written. 

These verbs are often treated as if very peculiar in meaning. But 
if the pupil learns their exact meaning from a dictionary, he will find 
no difficulty in their use, except in explaining how their past forms can 
be used when the sense is plainly future. Thus, one says, " I might do 
that for you to-morrow." " We could easily stop that." What is post ? 
Kot the actions implied in do and stop ; these are present forms, and 
may be used for the present or future. The speaker implies that some- 
thing is past in his own mind which he is thinking of; some condition, 
for instance. " I might do that for you to-morrow, if you wished me to 
do it" The conditional clause having its verb in past time, the other 
verb is past also. Compare " I may do it, if you wish " with " I might 
do it, if you wished." The first sentence implies that the speaker is in 
doubt whether the person spoken to wishes it done ; the second form 
implies that the doubt is past. 

The progressive potential form of a verb is made by com- 
bining the potential forms of the verb be with the imperfect 
participle of a verb; as, He may be reading, he might be 
reading, he may have been reading, he might have been read- 
ing. 

§ HO. The forms of the verb already given 
are called the Active Voice. 

The Passive Voice is made up of the 
forms of the verb be, followed by the Past 
Participle; as, I am loved, was loved, have been 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 113 

loved, had been loved, shall be loved, shall have 
been loved. 

Notice that in the potential form shall and will are used 
exactly opposite to their use in the future ; that will is em- 
ployed in the first person and shall in the second and third. 

This form does not in itself imply that the subject is pass- 
ive, or has something done to it ; but simply that the act is 
finished. By common usage this form is used when the act 
is not finished by the subject. Compare " I have finished 
the letter" with "The letter is finished." The active form 
gives prominence to the subject as the doer of the action, the 
passive form gives the fact of completion as the important 
fact. 

If the doer of the action is to be expressed in the Passive 
form, it is done by an adjunct which follows the predicate 
verb, introduced by the preposition by ; as, The battle was 
won by the English. The same idea may be actively ex- 
pressed thus : The English won the battle. 

§111. Only transitive verbs admit the 
passive form. Any idea expressed by the active 
form of a transitive verb, may also be expressed 
by the passive form, by making the direct object 
of the active form the subject of the passive 
form ; as, 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

I broke the stick. The stick was broken. 

They captured the city. The city was captured. 

Change the predicate verbs in the following 
sentences to the passive form. Express the 
doer of the action. 



1 1 4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

James held the dog. The sun warms the earth. The 
fire consumed the city. The saddler bought my leather. 
Isaac found my ball. I wrote that letter. Who bought that 
house ? We made the attempt. The officer arrested the 
thief. 

This distinction of the active and passive forms is a difference in 
meaning, rather than in form, and need not be given in analyzing the 
sentence. It is only given because pupils will find the term in general 
use, and ought to know what it means. There is just as much passiv- 
ity implied in the sentence, The boy is sick, as in the sentence, The 
boy is struck. In either case, the last word in the sentence is an ad- 
jective, forming a part of the predicate. 

•§ 112. Of late, a progressive passive form has been 
making its way into newspapers, and into common speech. 
It is made up of the verb be, the participle being, and the 
complete participle of the verb. It is used only in the pres- 
ent and past. 

The picture is being painted. 

The picture was being painted. 

The proper form to express the above is the Gerund fol- 
lowing the forms of be ; as, the picture is painting, (formerly 
written, the picture is a-painting,) the house is building, wheat 
is selling, the meat is cooking, the water is boiling. Some- 
times the past participle makes equally good sense ; as, While 
this was doing, or, While this was done. " Not where he 
eats, but where he is eaten? instead of being eaten. The 
new form seems to be gaining ground, but is wholly uncalled 
for, and is not used by the great majority of good writers. 

§ 1 13* Complete Conjugation of the Transi- 
tive Verb Find. 

COMMON FORM. ACTIVE VOICE. 

-p ( Singular. I find, thou findest, he finds. 

PRESENT. I p lum l We findj you find> they fin(L 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 



115 



Past. 

Present 
Perfect. 

Past 
Perfect. 

Future. 



Future 
Perfect. 



j Singular. 
\ Plural. 
j Singular. 
\ Plural. 
j Singular. 
\ Plural. 
( Singular. 
1 Plural. 



Plural. 



I found, thou foundest, he found. 
We found, you found, they found. 
I have found, thou hast found, he hast found. 
We have found, you have found, they have found. 
I had found, thou hadst found, he had found. 
We had found, you had found, they had found. 
I shall find, thou wilt find, he will find. 
We shall find, you will find, they will find. 

Singular. I shall have found, thou wilt have found, he will 
have found. 
We shall have found, you will have found, they 
will have found. 



Present. 

Past 

Tense. 

Present 
Perfect. 



Past 
Perfect. 



Future. 



Future 
Perfect. 



COMMON FORM. — PASSIVE VOICE. 

( Singular. I am found, thou art found, he is found. 

j Plural. We are found, you are found, they are found. 

( Singular. I was found, thou wast found, he was found. 
( Plural. We were found, you were found, they were found. 
Singular. I have been found, thou hast been found, he has 

been found. 
Plural. We have been found, you have been found, they 

have been found. 
Singular. I had been found, thou hadst been found, he had 

been found. 
Plural. We had been found, you had been found, they 

had been found. 

Singular. I shall be found, thou wilt be found, he will be 

found. 
Plural. We shall be found, you will be found, they will 

be found. 

Singular. I shall have been found, thou will have been 
found, he will have been found. 

Plural. We shall have been found, you will have been 
found, they will have been found. 



POTENTIAL FORM. ACTIVE VOICE. 

p ( Singular. I may find, thou mayst find, he may find. 

' ( Plural. We may find, you may find, they may find. 
(Can or must may be used in place oimay.) 

Past I Singular. 1 might find, thou mightst find, he might find. 

( Plural. We might find, you might find, they might find. 
(Could, would, or should, may be used in place of might.) 

' Singular. I may have found, thou mayst have found, he 
Present J may have found. 

Perfect, j Plural. We may have found, you may have found, they 
may have found. 



110 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Past 
Perfect. ' 



Singular. I might have found, thou mightst have found, he 

might have found. 
Plural. We might have found, you might have found, 

they might have found. 



Present. - 



Past. 



Present 
Perfect 



. 



Past \ 

Perfect.] 



POTENTIAL FORM. — ACTIVE VOICE. 

Singular. I may be found, thou mayst be found, he may be 

found. 
Plural. We may be found, you may be found, they may 

be found. 

Singular. I might be found, thou mightst be found, he 

might be found. 
Plural. We might be found, you might be found, they 

might be (bund. 

Singular. I may have been found, thou mayst have been 
found, he may have been found. 

Plural. We may have been found, you may have been 
found, they may have been found. 

Singular. I might have been found, thou mightst have been 
found, we might have been found. 

Plural. We might have been found, you might have 
been found, they might have been found. 



Present. 
Past. 



Present 
Perfect. 



Past 
Perfect. 



Future. 



Future 
Perfect. 



Plural. 
' Singular. 
Plural. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM. ACTIVE VOICE. 

( Singular. I am finding, thou art finding, he is finding. 
\ Plural. We are finding, you are finding, they are finding. 
Singular. I was finding, thou wast finding, he was finding. 
We were finding, you were finding, they were 
finding. 

I have been, thou hast been, he 

has been 
We have been, you have been, 
they have been 
Singular. I had been, thou hadst been, he ' 

had been 
Plural. We had been, you had been, they 
had been 

Singular. I shall be, thou wilt be, he will ] 

Plural. We shall be, you will be, they [ 
will be j 

Singular. I shall have been, thou wilt have") 

been, he will have been ! fl n( « n0 . 

We shall have been, you will have J »' 

been, they will have been J 



finding. 



finding. 



Plural. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 117 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. PASSIVE VOICE. 

^ ( Singular. I am, thou art, he is I b • f oun ^ # 

Pbesent. J pl ^ a , We arc> you a re, they are J Demg 10llna • 

V v st i Singular. I was, thou wast, he was ) bei foimd 

1 ast. -j p/ wra /. We were, you were, they were J b 

EMPHATIC FORM. ACTIVE VOICE. 

^ ( Singular. I do find, thou dost find, he does find. 

Pkesent. <j pl * ra i We do find, you do find, they do find. 

^ ( Singular. I did find, thou didst find, he did find. 

Past. j pi ura f m We did find, you did find, they did find. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. — Pin din g. 
Perfect, or Past. — Pound. 
Compound Active. — Having found. 
Compound Passive. — Being found. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present. — To find. k 

Perfict. — To have found. 
Present Passive. — To be found. 
Perfect Passive. — To have been found. 

§ 114. The verb once had forms to denote whether 
an assertion was made as a fact, or as a condition, or sup- 
position. These forms were called the Subjunctive mode. 

The verb be still retains its subjunctive forms in the Pres- 
ent and Past tenses. 

Present Singular. I be, thou beest, he be. 

Present Plural. Be. 

Past Singular I were, thou wert, he were. 

Past Plural. Were. 

These forms are used in suppositions, or in conditions ; 
as, Were he to do this, he would ruin his case. 

If thou beest a man, defend him. 

Be the) r ten thousand, I defy them all. 

If thou wert wise, thou wouldest at once escape. 

Though my foe^ be many, I am not afraid. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The third person singular of other verbs omits the ending 
s in the subjunctive form ; as, If he write a letter, instead of, 
If he writes a letter. 

Have is used in the second and third singular subjunctive, 
instead of hast and has. 

The subjunctive forms are all obsolescent, except in 
the past tense of be. 

§ 1 15. To make a verb in grammar, means 
to put it into any required form. To tell where 
it ts made is to name the tense, form, voice, num- 
ber, and person of the verb, if these can be known 
by the verb itself. If all these facts cannot be 
known, name as many as possible. 

Most forms of the verb do not show the per- 
son and number ol the subject. Can go, for 
instance, is made in the present tense, and po- 
tential form, but its subject may be either singu- 
lar or plural, and of either person. The form 
write shows only that it is present and active. 
But the form am loved shows tense, voice, num- 
ber, and person, as it can be used only with a 
pronoun of the first person singular. 

Only a few forms of the verb denote person or number, and it is 
needless to ask for the person and number of a verb, unless there is 
something in the verb to express them. 

ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISE. 

Where is has written made ? It is made in the Present 
Perfect tense, active voice, third person, singular number 

Where is did made ? It is made in the past tense, active 
voice. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 119 

Where is may be going made? In the present potential 
progressive form, active voice. 

Where is has been told made ? In the Present Perfect 
tense, passive voice, third person, singular. 

In written work, allow the pupils to abbreviate ; as, Does 
believe is made in the pres. act., emph. form, 3d sing. Might 
have gone is made in the past perf., pot. form, act. voice. 

Tell where the following verbs are made. Is written, has 
been found, am writing, hast been, can be seen, wilt learn, 
shalt teach, was known, might have been prevented, had 
given, doeth, learnedst, thinks, am, is, hast fallen, is charged, 
shall have arrived, will be talking, were I, if he twite, should 
say, might be caught, must notice, should be slain, had learn- 
ed, dost know, had been seen, is being built, to have known, 
being concealed, did go, could be caught, might have been, 
had had, shall have been, will try, doth or doeth, has been 
said, should have thought. 

§ 1 1 6. Beware, ought, quoth, wit, and think, in the sense 
of seem, are defective. 

Beware is used only in the infinitive, and in imperative 
sentences. Ought is past in form (from owe) but is used 
either as present or past. Quoth is used only in the past 
tense with the subjects /or he, and always precedes its sub- 
ject. Wit is used only in the infinitive. Think is used only 
in the present and past tense, third person singular, preceded 
by me ; as, Methinks I see him now. The subject of thinks 
is the following sentence. The meaning is, It seems to me that 
I see Mm now. In this latter sentence it stands for the sen- 
tence following seems. 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XXV. 

§ 117. The principal parts of weak verbs are easily- 
formed from the theme. The variety of vowel changes in 
the Strong Verb renders it necessary to give a list of the 
most common. 

Regular Strong Conjugation. 



THEME. 


PAST TENSE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Bid, 


bade, 


bidden, or bid. 


Chide, 


chid (obs. chode), 


chidden, or chid. 


Come, 


came, 


come (obs. comen) 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven, 


Eat, 


ate, or eat, 


eaten, or eat. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, 


(went), 


gone. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, or hid. 


Hold, 


held, 


held, or holden. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Eide, 


rode, 


ridden, or rode. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 



121 



§ 1 1 S. Verbs whose Past Participle is formed from 
the Past Tense by adding n, or is the same as the Past. 



THEME. 


PAST TENSE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


Bear, 


bore, or 


bare, 


borne, or born. 


Bind, 


bound, 




bound, or bounden. 


Beat, 


beat, 




beaten, or beat. 


Bleed, 


bled, 




bled. 


Break, 


broke, 




broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 




bred. 


Cling, 


clung, 




clung. 


Feed, 


fed, 




fed. 


Fight, 


fought, 




fought (foughten). 


Find, 


found, 




found. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 




forborne. 


Get, 


got, 




got, or gotten. 


Lead, 


led, 




led. 


Lie, 


lay, 




lain. 


Meet, 


met, 




met. 


Read, 


read, 




read. 


Ring, 


rung, or 


rang, 


rung. 


Run, 


ran, 




run. 


Shoot, 


shot, 




shot (shotten). 


Shrink, 


shrank, 




shrunk (shrunken) 


Sit, 


sat, 




sat (sitten). 


Sling, 


slung, 




slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 




slunk. 


Speak, 


spoke (spake), 


spoken. 


Spin, 


spun (span), 


spun. 


Spring, 


sprang, 


or sprung, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 




stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 




stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 




stuck. 



6 



122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THEME. 


PAST TENSE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk (stank), 


stunk. 


Strike, 


struck (strake), 


struck (stricken) 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trod (trodden). 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 



The forms in parentheses are obsolete, or are used only 
as adjectives. 

§ 1 10. The following have different vowels in the 
three different principal parts : 



Begin, 

Drink, 

Fly, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Swim, 



begun. 

drunk (drunken). 

flown. 



sung. 



sunk (sunken), 
swum. 



began, 

drank, 

flew, 

sang, or sung, 

sank, or sunk, 

swam, or swum, 
The following verbs make all their principal parts alike : 
Beat, beset, bestead, cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, let, put, rid, 
set, shed, shut, shred, spit, thrust. 

The following are of the weak conjugation, but contract 
their forms, or change them for euphony. The past parti- 
ciple is the same as the past tense. Make drops k before d. 



THEME. 


PAST TENSE. 


THEME. 


PAST TENSE. 


Feel, 


felt. 


Lose, 


lost. 


Have, 


had. 


Make, 


made. 


Hear, 


heard. 


Pay, 


paid. 


Keep, 


kept. 


Rend, 


rent. 


Lay, 


kid. 


Say, 


said. 


Lend, 


lent. 


Shoe, 


shod. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE, 



123 



Many verbs cot given, in this list contract ed in t; as, 
blest, built, gilt, past, for blessed, builded, gilded, passed. 

Verbs of the mixed conjugation change the vowel and 
add d or t in the past tense : Bring, brought ; buy, bought ; 
do, did, (strong participle done ;) seek, sought ; sell, sold ; 
teach, taught ; think, thought. 

REDUNDANT VERBS. 

§ ISO. A verb is redundant when it has double 
forms for any of its parts. Some examples have already 
been given. Many verbs once strong are weal: in common 
use, but retain their strong forms in poetry. The following 
are among the more common redundant verbs : 



Awake, awoke, or awaked, 

Cleave, cleaved, or clave, 

(to adhere to), 
Cleave, clove, or cleft, 

(to split), 

clothed, or clad, 
dared, or durst, 
hung, or hanged, 
heaved, or hove, 
lighted, or lit, 
sawed, 

seethed, or sod, 
shone, or shined, 
winded, or wound, 



Clothe, 

Dare, 

Hang, 

Heave, 

Light, 

Saw, 

Seethe, 

Shine, 

Wind, 

Work, 



awaked, or awoke, 
cleaved. 

cleft, or cloven. 

clothed, or clad, 
dared, or durst, 
hung, or hanged, 
heaved, or hoven. 
lighted, or lit. 
sawed, or sawn, 
seethed, or sodden, 
shone, or shined. 
winded, or wound. 



worked, or wrought, worked, or wrought. 



DERIVATION OF VERBS. 

§ 321. Verbs are derived from adjectives and nouns 
by adding the ending en. Such verbs signify to make or to 
do that which is implied in the primitive. ' Thus widew 
means to make wide ; lengths, to make long. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Form verbs from deep, height, broad, strength, fast, light. 

Sometimes an adjective is used as a part of a predicate 
with the same force ; as, make glad, = gladden. 

Verbs are derived from nouns by a change of accent. 
The accent of the verb comes on the final syllable. 

Nouns, object, cem'ent, survey, transport, con'sort. 

Verbs, object', cement', survey', transport', consort'. 

Let the pupil add to this list, which contains about 150 words. 

Verbs are derived from nouns by changing anon-so- 
nant consonant into the corresponding sonant, 
Noun, life, breath, cloth, grief, glass, use. 
Verb, live, breathe, clothe, grieve, glaze, use. 

Form verbs from the following nouns : Bath, swath, half 
relief, leaf, refuse. 

Verbs are derived from Latin roots by adding fy 9 signify- 
ing to make. Thus, amplify means to make ample ; glorify 
to make glorious ; certify to make certain. 

The ending ize with Greek and Latin roots has some- 
times the same meaning ; as, realize, to make real ; Angli- 
cize, to make into English. 

RECAPITULATION OF THE VERB. 

§ 122. The Verb has two conjugations, 
the weak and the strong; two simple tenses, 
the present and the past; four compound 
tenses, the present perfect, past perfect, 
future) and future perfect ; two substan- 
tives, the infinitive and the gerund ; two 
adjective forms, the imperfect and the per- 
fect participles; two voices, the active 
and the passive. 



COMMON SCHOOt COURSE. 125 

It has also an Emphatic, a Progressive, 
and a Potential form, and a few forms which 
denote the person and number of the subject. 
It has also an obsolescent Subjunctive mode. 
In form verbs are regular or irregular; 
complete, defective, or redundant. In 
respect to complement, they are transitive 
or intransitive. 

The compound forms are made up of the 
verbs be, have, do, may, can, must, shall, 
and will, with their infinitive and adjective 
complements. 

LESSON XXVI. 

THE PRONOUN. 

§ 123. A Pronoun is a word used in place 
of a substantive, which admits only adjective 
modifiers, and can stand in any relation in which 
a noun can stand. 

Adjectives are sometimes used in place of nouns, but do not admit 
the modifiers of nouns. 

The substantive for which the pronoun stands 
is called the antecedent of the pronoun. It 
may be a noun, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. 

Antecedent means going before, but the substantive for which a pro- 
noun stands often comes after it, or is unknown. When we ask, 
" Who did it V we use a pronoun for an unknown noun. 

Pronouns are divided into three classes, Per- 
sonal Relative, and Interrogative. 



12 G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Personal pronouns are those which indicate 
the grammatical person of the noun for which 
they stand. 

/ is the pronoun of the first person ; thou, of 
the second person ; he, of the third singular, 
masculine ; she, of the third singular, feminine ; 
it, of the third singular, neuter. 

The pronouns of the first and second person have no gender. 

§ 124. The pronouns, are irregular in de- 
clension, and are thus declined : 

SINGULAR. 

Subject, I, thou, he, she, it. 

Possessive, my, or mine, thy, or thine, his, her, or hers, its. 
Objective, me, thee, him, her, ^t. 

PLURAL. 

Subject, we, you, or ye, they, ) f ,, 

Possessive, our, or ours, your, or yours, their, or theirs, > J i 
Objective, us, you, them, } genders. 

The plural we is sometimes used by editors or public 
speakers, as if they were speaking for a number of persons > 
as, We are informed, etc. This is called the plural of mod- 
esty. Kings also use the plural in their edicts, as if they 
embodied in themselves the will of a nation ; as, It is our 
royal pleasure* This is called the plural of majesty. 

Thou is used in poetry and in addressing the Deity, and 
in , common discourse by some religious sects ; as by the 
Friends. You is used in addressing a single person, but 
takes its verb in the plural ; as, you were ; never, you was. 
Te in the nominative is retained in solemn style and in 
poetry* 

The second forms of the possessive are used when the 
name denoting the thing possessed is omitted ; as yours is 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 127 

better than mine. Mine and thine were formerly used fur 
euphony before a word beginning with a vowel; as mine 
eyes. (Compare the use of an and a.) In such a phrase 
as, A brother of mine, mine seems to be used instead of me. 

Its is of recent introduction. It does not appear in the 
common version of the Bible published in 1611. His was 
employed in its place ; as, the altar and his vessels. 

It stands as the subject of the verb be followed by a sub- 
stantive of any gender or either number; as, It is they; It 
is the French ; It was she. 

It often stands as the subject of a verb whose real subject 
is a sentence, an infinitive, or a clause following the verb. 
It is then redundant, or unnecessary to the construction, 
and may be omitted by transposing the sentence. 

It is no light thing to violate one's conscience. 

It is not strange that he is ashamed of his conduct 

It is difficult to hear him distinctly. 

By transposing these sentences, it may be omitted ; as, to 
hear him distinctly is difficult. 

It is sometimes used indefinitely ; as, It rains ; it thunders. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§ 126. Myself, thyself, himself, herself, it- 
self, ourself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, and 
themselves, are called Compound Personal 

Pronouns. They are used in two senses. 

1. To make emphatic a preceding substantive 
which they modify; as, The king himself} I 
myself. 

2. After a transitive verb ; to denote that 
the action terminates upon the subject; as, I 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

have hurt myself. The child will kill itself. 
They are then said to be used reflexively. 

Reflex means turn back ; the pronoun turns back our thought to the 
subject. 

Rarely a compound personal pronoun is used alone as the 
subject of a sentence ; as, Thyself shall see the act. 

LESSON XXVII. 

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 127. The pronouns, who, which, what, 

that, and as, besides supplying the place of a 
substantive, perform the office of a connective, 
and join an adjective clause to the , substantive 
which it modifies. When so used they are 
called Relative Pronouns. 

Who, which, and what, when used in asking a 
question, are called Interrogative Pronouns. 

The antecedent of a relative generally stands immediately 
before it in the same sentence ; the interrogative pronoun 
usually begins a sentence, and its antecedent is in the answer 
to the question. 

The relative has usually a definite antecedent ; the inter- 
rogative has often an indefinite antecedent. 

The relative and interrogative pronouns are thus declined : 

Subject, or nominative, who, which, that. 

Possessive, whose, whose, whose. 

Objective, whom, which, that. 

The same forms are used in the singular and plural. 
Whose is rarely used as the possessive of which and that. 
What and as are not varied in form. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 129 

Who is the only word of either class which is always a 
pronoun. It applies only to persons, or to things personified ; 
as, The man who. 

Which, formerly used of persons, is now used only of 
things. It is properly a specifying adjective, and often is 
followed by a noun. In the expression, " Our Father which 
art in heaven,'' we have the old use of the pronoun. Modern 
use requires " who art." Whenever in questions which is 
used of persons, a noun is always implied after it ; as 
which (man) was it? 

That, also a specifying adjective, may refer either to per- 
sons or things ; as, The man that ; or The words that. 

§ 128* What, as a relative, is never used when the 
antecedent is expressed before it. It is often indefinite, and 
often stands at the beginning of a question which is the ob- 
ject of a verb, and should then be called an interrogative. 

He gave me what money he had. 

(What, in this sentence, is a specifying adjective.) 

Tell me what you saw. 

What, in the above, is interrogative and indefinite. It 
may mean what persons, what sights, what goods, or any thing 
else. The clause what you saw, is the object of tell, and is 
called an indirect question. What is the object of saw. 

This is what I wanted. The clause what I wanted, is the 
complement of if. The indefinite antecedent of what is 
omitted. What is the object of wanted ; or, if it be called 
a specifying adjective, it modifies an omitted noun. If an an- 
tecedent is expressed, what is changed to which ; the indefi- 
nite form to the definite. % 

Sometimes the antecedent of what is expressed in the 
following clause ; as, what I tell you in darkness, that speak 
ye in light. 

As is a relative pronoun when it introduces an adjective 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

clause after many, much, same, and such ; as, This is the 
same as you saw last week. As many as I love, I rebuke 
and chasten. 

§ l5S9t That is used in preference to who or which 
after a superlative, after the antecedent same, after an inter- 
rogative, after an unmodified antecedent, and after any ante- 
cedent preceded by a redundant it ; as, He is the greatest 
man that I know. This is the same that we had yesterday. 
Who was it that gave us the water ? They that are wise are 
honored. "Thoughts that breathe and words that burn." 
It is he that we lament. 

If the relative is the subject of a verb, the verb must take 
the same form as if the antecedent were the subject ; as, 
The woman who hesitates. Thou that sittest. He that 
keepeth watch. 

Which admits a sentence, or something implied in a 
sentence, as an antecedent ; as, He lost his money, which 
made him insane. Money is not the antecedent of the rela- 
tive : it is the fact of losing money. Supply loss in the 
clause, and it will read, which loss rendered him insane. 
Which then becomes a specifying adjective. 

Correct the following expressions : 

The wisest man who ever lived. This is the same knife 
which I sold you. Who was it who told you ? Men who 
hate sin, love righteousness. It is me whom you want. 
The noblest deed which was ever done. 

§ 1©$®. The relative pronouns who, which, and what, 
become indefinite by the addition of so, ever, and soever ; as, 
whoso, tvhoever, whosoever. The antecedent of an indefinite 
pronoun is, of course, generally omitted. Who is sometimes 
used indefinitely. 

Whoever comes shall be welcomed. Who breaks, pays. 
Whoso offereth praise glorifieth me. Notice that the omitted 



COMMON SCHOOL COUBSE. 131 

antecedent is the leading subject of the sentence, and that 
the relative is the subject of an adjective clause. If the an- 
tecedent were expressed, it would be indefinite, and a defi- 
nite relative would be used; as, Any one who comes, etc. 

What is sometimes an adverb in the sense of partly ; as, 
What with running, and what with shouting, my breath was 
spent. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

§ 131. Certain specifying adjectives are so often 
used without a noun following them, that they are some- 
times called pronouns. What, which, and that, are examples. 
They are not strictly pronouns, but may be called Pro- 
iiomi* afl Adjectives. Their number is not fixed, be- 
cause the classification depends principally upon the fre- 
quency of their use. This and that (plural, these and those) 
are called demonstratives. They have the same root 
as the, but are more emphatic. This refers to the nearer ; 
that to the more remote. 

Each, every, either, neither, and the other are called Dis- 
tributives. 

Each is used of any number taken one by one ; as, Each 
of you shall have a share. 

Every is more emphatic than each, and is used of any 
number more than two, taken one by one. 

Either, neither, and the other are used of one of two. The 
ending er is comparative, and they should not be used of 
more than two. Instead of saying, Either of the three, say, 
Any one of the three. 

All, another, both, few, former, latter, many, much, none, 
one, own, same, several, and such are generally classed as 
pronominal adjectives. One admits a complete declension, 
and might be called an indefinite personal pronoun. Both 
applies to two taken together. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.' 

§ 1 32. Each other and one another are called Recip- 
rocals. Each other is used when two is spoken of; one an- 
other is used of any number larger than two. They admit 
of declension, and add the declension endings to the last 
word. 

They were beating each other, means, They each (of the 
two) were beating the other. 

Little children, love one another ; that is, do you each one 
love another, any other, or, all the others. 

Correct the following expressions : 

Either one of the United States. The two children love 
one another. If any one has my book, let them raise the 
hand. Each one has had their say. Two negatives destroy 
one another. Neither of the countries of Europe is so large 
as Russia. (Two errors.) Let every pupil keep their seat. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

§ 133. The Adjective is a word which 
modifies or limits a substantive by naming some 
quality or attribute ; or by pointing out which, 
or how many are meant. It is frequently used 
as a part of the predicate, as the complement 
of a verb. 

There are three principal classes of adjectives. 

1. Descriptive Adjectives, or Names of 
Qualities. 

2. Specifying Adjectives, which point out 
ivhich are meant. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 133 

3. Numeral Adjectives, which denote 
IVuintoer. 

Descriptive adjectives are divided into Variable and 
Invariable. Variable adjectives name qualities which 
vary in degree ; as, sour, costly, large, small. Invariable 
adjectives name qualities which cannot be varied in degree; 
as, golden, square, triangular. 

Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns, and 
are commenced with a capital letter ; as, Websterian intellect, 
Socratic method. After long and frequent use such adjec- 
tives may become common ; as, martial, stentorian. They 
may be either descriptive or definitive. 

Material adjectives denote the material of which any 
thing is made ; sometimes that which it resembles. They 
are derived from nouns by adding en ; as, golden, flaxen, 
leaden, brazen, (from brass. Notice the consonant change.) 
A noun is often used instead of a material adjective ; as iron 
chains, steel bolts, silver cord. (These are a kind of descrip- 
tive adjectives.) 

§ 134. Specifying adjectives include a, 
an, and the, the pronominal adjectives, and a 
few others. 

Numeral adjectives are of four kinds. 

1. Cardinals, which are used in counting, and answer 
the question, how many ? as, one, twelve, twenty. 

2. Ordinals, which denote which one in order, either in 
time or in place ; as, first, fifth, ninth. 

3. Multiplicatives, which denote the number taken 
together, or the number of parts which make up the whole ; 
as, two-fold, fourfold, single, triple. 

4. Indefinite, which denote number indefinitely; as, 
few, several, many. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Let the pupils form the ordinals and multiplicative s from 
the cardinals. 

One by one, two by two, etc., are called distributive 
numerals. 

A verbal adjective (§ 95) is derived from a verb by inflec- 
tion, and admits verbal modifiers. 

§ 135. The only inflection which the adjective admits 
is Comparison, (Except a few specifying adjectives, 
§ 131). 

Comparison is an inflection of certain variable adjectives 
to denote the degree of the quality. 

The Theme of the adjective is the ordinary name of the 
quality, and is called the Positive degree ; as, black, cool 

The Sub-positive degree is formed from the Positive by 
the ending isli : as, blacks, coolish. The ending ish means 
like, or resembling, and is often added to nouns to form ad- 
jectives ; as, wolfish, clownish. 

The Comparative degree is the form of the adjective, 
which, besides naming the quality, expresses comparison. 
Its ending is er : as, He is older than I ; blacker than night. 

The Superlative degree is that form of the adjective 
which expresses the highest degree of the quality ; as, the 
wisest of his sect ; the bravest of the brave. Its ending is 
est 

Monosyllabic variable adjectives, and a few dissyllabic, ad- 
mit the inflection of comparison. Other variable adjectives 
are compared by adverbial modification. The adverbs some- 
what and rather give nearly the equivalent of the ending ish ; 
more corresponds to the ending er, most to the ending est. 
Less and least gives a comparison of decrease, making the 
positive a starting-point ; as, common, less common, least 
common. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 



135 



§136. Comparison of adjectives. 



SUB-POSITIVE. 

Sweetish, 



Rapid, 



POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


sweet, sweeter, 


sweetest. 


lovely, lovelier, 


loveliest. 


is, famous, more famous, 


most famous. 


BY DIMINUTION. 




less rapid, 


least rapid. 


IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 





ad, \ 

vi\, [ 
L ) 



Good, 

Bad, 

Ev 

111. 

Much, ) 

Many, ) 

Near, 

Late, 

Old, 

Far, 

Little, 



better, 



worse, 



more, 



best. 



worst. 



most. 



nearest, or next, 
latest, or last, 
oldest, or eldest, 
farthest, or furthest, 
least. 



nearer, 

later, or latter, 
older, or elder, 
farther, or further, 
less, 

Much denotes quantity, and is singular ; many denotes 
number, and is plural. Later and latest are used only of 
time ; latter and last of either time, or place. Elder and 
eldest are now used only of persons. 

Specifying, numeral, and material adjectives are invaria- 
ble. All nouns used as adjectives are invariable, though 
some may be modiffed by adverbs. 

The adjectives junior, senior, major, minor, interior, exte- 
rior, prior, posterior, anterior, and superior, are Latin com- 
paratives. 

Some adjectives take most as a superlative ending, instead 
of prefixing it as an adverb ; a*, foremost , hindmost. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 1 37. In analyzing a sentence the degree of an ad- 
jective need not be mentioned, unless it is expressed by 
the ending. The modification by adverbs does not differ 
from any other modification. 

The adjective of whatever class usually stands before its 
noun. Except when the adjective is modified by an adjunct 
following ; as, a man agreeable in manner. 

Some adjectives, mostly compounds of a, can be used only 
in the predicate ; as, asleep, alive, awake. 

Some adjectives which are strictly invariable are compared 
by way of emphasis, or because we do not use words in their 
exact meaning. We say, the house is fuller than usual to- 
night, meaning more nearly full. But, of course, if it were full 
it could not be more than full. So we say that one ball is 
rounder than another ; that is, it comes nearer to a globular 
shape. 

§138. The specifying adjectives an or a, and the are 
often called articles. 

An is the same as one, and any is closely allied in mean- 
ing. Before a consonant sound n is dropped for euphony. 
As an is singular, it can only be used before a noun in the 
singular. The has the same root as this and that. It is used 
with nouns of either number. 

An is used in general statements, indefinitely.; the of some- 
thing definitely known ; as, I saw a man (indefinite) passing. 
In a moment I saw the man (definite) turn back, etc. 

Often an and the differ principally in ejnphasis. 

An honest man's the noblest work of God. 

The honest man's the noblest work of God. 

In the expressions the more, the better, the is an adverb. 

Certain numerals, as hundred, thousand, are used as col- 
lective nouns in the singular, and admit the article an ; as, a 
thousand (of) men. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 137 

In such expressions as many a time, the phrase many a 
has a distributive force, and can agree with a singular noun. 

LESSON XXIX. 

THE ADVERB. 

§ 139. The Adverb is a word whose office 
is to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
It rarely modifies prepositions, and frequently 
serves as a connective. 

Its name means added to a verb, and it stands in the same 
relation to the verb that the adjective does to the noun ; so 
that all modifiers of the verb are sometimes called, collect- 
ively, adverbial modifiers. 

A few adverbs admit the inflection of comparison, and 
are compared like adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, soonest. 

The following adverbs are irregular in comparison : Well, 
better, best ; ill, much and little, whose adverbial forms are 
the same as the adjective forms already given (§ 136) ; far, 
farther, farthest ; forth, further, furthest. 

Adverbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and 
prepositions. 

Many words are either adjectives or adverbs according 
to the connection. They are often interchanged in poetry, 
either for rhyme or for meter. v 

ADJECTIVES. ADVERBS. 

Much gold, Much worse. 

The farther side, They went farther. 

The still hour, He fared still better. 

Many adverbs are derived from descriptive adjectives by 
adding ly ; as, brave/y, earnest^, knowing/^. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.. 

Some adverbs are compounded of a preposition and its 
subsequent ; as, indeed, instead. 

§ 140. Pronominal Adverbs. 

A series of adverbs derived from pronouns deserves special 
notice. 

The pronoun he was once a specifying adjective with the 
force of this. From its root h, from the demonstrative root 
th, and the relative and interrogative root wh, are formed 
series of adverbs with corresponding endings and meanings. 
Root h. Here, hence, hither, (obsolete hen). 
Root th. There, thence, thither, then. 

Root wh. Where, whence, whither, when, why. 

Here = in or at this place. Hence = from this place. 
There = in or at that place. Thence = from that place. 
Where — in or at which or Whence == from which or 

what place. what place. 

Hither = to this place. Why = for what reason. 

Thither = to that place. Then = at that time. 

Whither = to what place. When = at which or what 

time. 

§ 141« As these adverbs are closely related to pro- 
nouns, they are frequently used as the subsequents of pre- 
positions, and may be called pronouns ; as, 

Till then, I boast a Saviour slain. 

Where are you going to? (Better, Whither are you 
going?) 

They departed from thence. (Better, They departed 
thence, but good usage admits the preposition.) 

" For why ? his owner had a house." 

These adverbs are compounded with several prepositions ; 
as, hereof, thereat, wherein, hitherto. The compounds with of 
are adjective modifiers, and may be treated as adjuncts, call- 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 139 

ing the first part of the compound a pronoun. Thereof was 
formerly used as the possessive of it (§ 124); as, Gaza and 
the villages thereof. Whereof 'was used instead of of what 
or of which ; as, The country whereof ye spake. Thereof 
and whereof are adjective modifiers of substantives, and may 
be called adjectives, or separated into the preposition and 
its subsequent, calling the first part a pronoun. 

§ 142. The principal relations denoted by 
adverbs are, manner, time, place, direc» 
tion, degree, and number. Besides these 
there are modal adverbs which modify the as- 
sertion ; and adverbial connectives. 

Adverbs of Manner answer the question How ? as, well, 
nobly, skillfully. 

Adverbs of Place are sub-divided into those of 

1. Place in which ; as, here, yonder, hereabouts. 

2. Place from which ; as, thence, away, forth. 

3. Place to which ; as, homeward, ashore, thither. 

Adverbs of Time include those which denote 

1. Time present; as, now, to-day, yet, now-a-days. 

2. Time past ; as, already, yesterday, formerly. 

3. Time future ; as, to-morrow, hereafter, henceforth. 

4. Time in general ; as, always, forever, aye. 

5. Time repeated ; as, often, once, thrice, usually. 

Adverbs of Degree are divided into 

1. Adverbs of abundance or excess ; as, greatly, totally, 
fully, altogether. 

2. Adverbs of equality or sufficiency ; as, enough, precisely, 
so, as, even, quite. 

3. Adverbs of deficiency ; as, less, hardly, scarcely, partly. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adverbs of number may be referred to Time repeated, and 
Place in order. 

Modal adverbs modify the assertion, and may be 

1. Emphatic; as, verily, certainly, indeed. 

2. Affirmative ; as, yes, (obsolete yea), which modifies 
either a preceding verb, or a sentence following. 

3. Negative ; as, no (used in modifying like yes), not, no- 
wise, nay. 

4. Doubtful ; as, perhaps, possibly, perchance. 
Adverbial connectives are adverts which connect a clause 

to a sentence. They are generally derived from the relative 
pronoun ; as, why, wherefore, when. They modify the verb 
of the clause. Occasionally they have an antecedent adverb 
in the principal clause ; as, 

Then shall we know, when Christ shall come. Often the 
antecedent is a noun ; as, At the time when (at which) kings 
go out to war. 

g 143. The adverb and the preposition are closely 
related, and a preposition without a subsequent is usually an 
adverb. 

It is the usage of the language that the subject should 
stand before the predicate. We noticed in § 1 25 that when 
a sentence is the subject, it often precedes the verb, so that 
it may not stand without an apparent subject. The adverb 
there is used in the same way before the verb be ; as, There 
were many. There is no doubt. There will be a shower. 
This sounds less abrupt than, A shower will be, No doubt is. 

Words used for sound, and not affecting the sense are 
called Expletives. There as used above is a good ex- 
ample. It is said to be used expletively, and has no modify- 
ing power. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 141 



LESSON XXX. 



THE PREPOSITION. 

§ 144. A Preposition is a word whose office 
is to connect a substantive with a word which 
is modified by the preposition and the follow- 
ing substantive in a manner denoted by the 
preposition. 

The word preposition means placed before, because the 
preposition stands before the substantive. The substantive 
which follows is called the sub§equent of the preposition. 
The preposition and its subsequent are together called an 
adjunct. The preposition is called the base of the ad- 
junct. 

A pronoun used as a subsequent of a preposition has the 
objective form. 

To the list of prepositions given in § 34, the following may- 
be added : aboard, athwart, ere, throughout, amidst, besides, 
out, underneath, amongst, betwixt, round, unto, within. 

Some of the above are only different forms of the prep- 
ositions given before. Most prepositions are of Saxon 
origin. 

§ 14:9*. The following are prepositions less frequently 
used. Those in italics are borrowed from foreign languages, 
and are not fully recognized as good English : 

A (as a-fishing), abaft, adown, afore, aslant, astride, de- 
spite, inside, maagre, minus, outside, per, plus, sans, versus, via. 

Save, and except, which are really the verbs of imperative 
sentences, are sometimes called prepositions. 

Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, 
past, pending, respecting, and touching, which are really im- 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

perfect participles, are used as. prepositions, although their 
form and their derivation are opposed to this use. 

§ 14©. The adjectives like, near, nigh, and opposite 
are sometimes absurdly called prepositions, because the fol- 
lowing preposition is often omitted ; as, like him. 

Prepositions are sometimes compounded or doubled ; as, 
Come out from among them ; From heyond Jordan. The 
subsequent of from is the following adjunct. Some prefer 
to supply a noun for the first preposition ; as, From the 
land beyond Jordan. In such compounds as out of out 
from, over against, the first word is an adverb. 

A preposition and its subsequent denote the relations of 
place and direction more frequently than any other, and 
very seldom modify a noun. 

Between (by twain or by two) requires or implies two 
subsequents , as, between you and me; Between u§. If 
more than two are implied in the subsequent, among should 
be used instead of between. 

§ 147 • The preposition is often compounded with the 
verb, adding its own meaning to that of the verb ; as, un- 
dergo. Intransitive verbs often become transitive verbs 
when compounded with a preposition ; as, 
Intransitive. live, stand, look, leap. 

Transitive. outlive, understand, overlook, overleap. 

Sometimes the preposition is incorporated with the verb 
in meaning, but not in position ; as, They went by the house. 
By is joined to the verb in sense ; not to the noun. Compare, 
They went by water, where by is a preposition. 

He brought up a family ; He is well spoken of; He gave 
up his situation, are other examples of a preposition com- 
pounded with a verb. 

Compare the separable particle in German. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 143 

Two prepositions are sometimes used with one subsequent; 
as, Our acquaintance with and mastery of English. Better, 
Our acquaintance with English and our mastery of it. 

The subsequent of a preposition may be an entire clause ; 
as, 

Ere the blue heavens were stretched abroad. 

Till the work was finished. 

LESSON XXXI. 

THE CONJUNCTION AND THE EXCLAMATION. 

§ 148. The Conjunct ion is that part of 
speech whose office is to connect words, 
phrases, clauses, and sentences. 

The Conjunction forms no part of the sen- 
tence in which it stands, and has no modifying 
power. Its meaning determines the relation in 
which the terms connected stand to each other. 

Adverbs and relative pronouns may connect clauses to 
sentences, but do not connect words, nor independent sen- 
tences. 

Words connected by conjunctions are usually of the same 
part of speech, and in the same relation in the sentence ; as, 
vSamuel or Robert will come and help you. 

§ 140. The following lists contain the common con- 
junctions : 

1. Pum conjunctions, or words used only to connect. 
Although, and, because, if, lest, nevertheless, nor, or, than, 
though, unless, whereas, whether. 

2. Conjunctions, or prepositions. But, for, since. 

3. Conjunctions, or adverbs. Also, as, even, then, yet. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMA K. 

4. Conjunctions, or adjectives. Both, either, neither 
that. 

Conjunctions are classified into 

1. Co-ordinate, which connect words in the same re- 
lation, or sentences in the same form ; as, 

Art is long, and time is fleeting. 

2. §uo-ordinat e, which connect a clause to a principal 
sentence, making the sentence complex ; as, This work will 
be done, if you will do your part. 

§ 15© » The following are the principal meanings 
expressed by conjunctions : 

1. Addition ; as, The blind and dumb both spake and 
saw. Conjunctions connecting terms in the same relation, 
and to be considered together, are called Copulative. 

2. Separation; as, Take one or the other. Either 
you are mistaken, or I am. These conjunctions imply a 
choice between two, and are called Disjunctive. 

3. Opposition, or Contrast ; as, He is rich, but eco- 
nomical ; He was defeated, yet he persevered. 

4. Cause; as, The wall fell, because the stream under- 
mined it. This dependent clause is called a Causal clause. 

5. Conclusion ; as he is innocent, therefore he is confi- 
dent. Then is often used instead of therefore. 

6. Purpose; as, He came that he might receive his 
commission. Instead of a clause with that, an infinitive is 
often used ; as, He came to receive. 

7. Condition ; as, If you wish, you can have it. 

8. Concession ; as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust 
in him. 

9. Comparison ; as, He learns faster than I. He is as 
strong as a lion. 

Comparison of difference is denoted by than; comparison 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 145 

of equality by as. As often connects a noun to another 
noun which modifies it ; as, He sent him as ambassador. 

§ 1 5 1 • Conjunctions are often used correlatively ; that 
is, if one conjunction is used in the first member of two terms 
connected, the other is employed in the second. The princi- 
pal correlatives are both and, either or, whether 

or, neither — nor, if then, though yet, or 

still. 

If the first of one of # these pairs is used in the first mem- 
ber, its correlative must be used in the second. " Neither 
the one or the other," is not correct, because neither requires 
the correlative nor. The first of the correlatives is often 
omitted. 

"When two connectives come together, there is usually a 
transposition, or an ellipsis of some clause. 

And if it be true, why do you fear ? 

And why do you fear, if it be true ? 

In the first of the above, the two conjunctions and and if 
come together. By transposing the sentence, they are sep- 
arated and brought into their proper order, and connecting 
the complex sentence to some preceding sentence, and if 
connecting the clause to the interrogative sentence. 

It was parted as if by an earthquake's shock. It was 
parted as (it would be) if (parted) by an earthquake shock. 

Some prefer to call as if a compound connective. 

THE EXCLAMATION. 

§ 152. The Exclamation is that part of 
speech which is used to express emotion or 
feeling, without forming any part of the sen- 
tence. 

Other words which express emotion and feeling form a 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

part of the sentence; the exclamation stands usually en- 
tirely alone. 

Exclamations express sorrow; as, ah, alas; Surprise; 
as, ha, whew; Contempt; as, fudge, pshaw, pooh ; Aver- 
sion; as, fie, faugh; Exultation; as, huzza, hurrah ; 
JLaugliter; as, ha, ha ; Interrogative; a?, eh? hey? 
Weariness ; as, heigh ho. 

Words used in calling or driving animals ; as, whoa, haw, 
gee, are classed as exclamations. 

LESSON XXXIL 

SYNTAX. 

§ 153. Syntax is that part of Grammar 
which treats of the Sentence, and of the rela- 
tions, modifications, and arrangement of words 
in sentences. 

A Sentence is the complete expression of 
a thought by means of words. 

The expression of a thought involves, at least, 
three things. 

1. Some subject of thought. 

2. Some idea which is connected with the 
subject. 

3. Some word which expresses the connection 
of the first and second ideas. 

Thus if one has the idea of glass, and connects with it in 
his mind the idea of brittleness, he expresses the connection 
of the two ideas by a word which asserts ; as, glass is brittle. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 147 

The second idea may take an assertive form, 
or two ideas may be expressed in one word; 
as, trees grow. 

The first idea is that of trees, the second, of growth, and the 
word grow asserts the second idea of the first. A complete 
sentence must contain, at least, two words. 

§ 154. The Subject of a sentence is a 
word denoting that of which something is as- 
serted. 

The Predicate of a sentence is that which 
is asserted of the subject. 

The Elements of a sentence are the subject 
and the predicate. 

The subject of a sentence is a substantive, 
either with or without modifiers. The predi- 
cate is a verb either modified or unmodified. 

A thought may be expressed as a declaration 
of the belief, or the purpose of the speaker,, as 
a question, as a command, or as an exclamation. 
The word assert is used to express any one of 
these forms of communicating thought. 

There are four kinds of sentences ; Declara- 
tive, Interrogative, Imperative, and Ex- 
clamatory. 

A declarative sentence is called a Proposi- 
tion. A general proposition has no limit, or 
modification ; as, Fire burns. Iron is heavy. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A limited proposition is restricted to bounds 
defined by limiting words ; as, This fire burns 
tvell. 

The affirmation of the last sentence is restricted to one 
specified fire, and burns is modified by an adverb of manner. 

§ 155. Any word which limits the appli- " 
cation, explains the meaning, or completes the 
sense of another word, is said to modify that 
word. 

My Newfoundland dog likes to swim. 
This assertion is limited ; it is made of but one dog, and 
the word dog has two modifiers, one telling what kind of 
dog, and the other to whom the dog belongs. Likes has a 
modifier completing its meaning-, telling what the dog likes. 

The Simple subject is the substantive with- 
out modifiers; the simple predicate is the verb 
without modifiers. 

The Logical subject and predicate are the 
simple subject and predicate with their respect- 
ive modifiers. 

The honest man who founo* the purse, restored it without 
delay to the owner. 

The simple subject of the above is man, the simple predi- 
cate is restored. The logical subject is the honest man who 
found the purse ; the logical predicate is restored it without 
delay to the owne*r. 

§ 156. A Simple sentence has one sub- 
ject and one predicate. 

A compound sentence is made up of simple 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 149 

sentences combined. It can be separated into 
simple sentences. 

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, 
may be made compound ; as, John and James 
read and write. 

A Claiase contains the elements, of a sen- 
tence, but does not make complete sense. It 
is always used as a modifier. 

A Complex sentence contains a clause as a 
modifier; as, They also serve who only stand 
and wait 

A sentence may be both compound and complex. A 
complex sentence may contain several clauses, either in the 
subject or in the predicate. 

An Independent sentence makes sense by 
itself; a dependent sentence is the same as a 
Clause. That member of a Complex sentence 
which is modified by the rest is called the prin- 
cipal, or leading sentence ; as, He said that he 
would go. He said is the leading sentence, 
though it is not complete ; that he ivould go is a 
dependent sentence. 

A Phrase is any number of related words 
in proper order, not forming a sentence or a 
clause. 

Phrases are named from their office ; as, adverbial phrases, 
adjective phrases ; or, from some leading word, as, a preposi- 
tional phrase, a participial phrase. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Analysis of a sentence is the naming 
of the elements of the sentence with their modi- 
fiers. 

Parsing" is verbal analysis ; the naming of 
the several parts of speech, with the relation 
which each word has in the sentence. 

lesson xxxm. 

MODIFIERS OF THE NOUN. 

§ 157, The Noun admits of five kinds of 
modifiers; the Appositive, the Possessive, 
the Adjective, the Adjunct, and the Clause. 

A noun or pronoun annexed to a substantive 
to define it, explain it, or make it emphatic, is 
called an Appositive, or is said to be in Ap- 
position; as, Mr. Miller the merchant; Long- 
fellow the poet; The king himself could do no 
more. 

The appositive usually stands after the word which it 
modifies, and is in the same case (§ 92) as the modified word. 
It is equivalent in meaning to an adjective clause ; as, Napo- 
leon, the first emperor ; or, Napoleon who was first emperor. 

The different words which make up a Complex noun may 
be regarded as appositives, and when the possessive relation 
is to be expressed by a noun modified by an appositive, the 
9 s is annexed to the last word; as, King Richard's crown ; 
Allen the bookseller's store. 

The appositive is sometimes connected with the noun by 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 151 

the conjunction as; as, I gave him a ball as his birthday 
present. 

Instead of a noun in apposition, an adjunct with the prep * 
osition of can sometimes be employed ; as, the city Boston, 
or, the city of Boston. 

The whole is often modified by its parts in apposition with 
it ; as, They went in haste ; some to the field, some to the 
garden, some to the forest. 

A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence or with 
something implied in it ; as, I must tell the whole truth ; a 
painful duty. The truth that all men are created equal is self- 
evident. 

The pronoun it is often in apposition with a clause, sen- 
tence, or phrase following the verb of which it is the subject ; 
as, It is a good thing to give thanks. 

A substantive used in apposition to two or more nouns 
must be in the plural ; as, Helen and Mary, pupils in the 
same school. 

§ 158. A noun or pronoun in the Possessive 
Case limits the noun denoting the thing pos- 
sessed; as, his book; Mary's slate; Achilles' 
shield. 

Adjectives of all kinds, including articles, 
pronominal, verbal, descriptive, specifying, and 
numeral adjectives, modify nouns. 

An adjective may be the complement of a 
verb, and is then said to refer to the subject, but 
does not modify or limit it. 

The grass is green. The grass grows green, looks green, 
becomes green. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Green, in the above, is a quality or attribute of grass, but 
in each case the quality is asseiied, and the # subject is not 
anodified by it. 

A participle standing in an abridged proposition (§ 52, 
§ 175) may be said to refer to the noun which would be the 
subject of the clause, if it were not elliptical. 

Adjectives which imply the singular idea, like an, one, each, 
either, should be nsed only with nouns in the singular num- 
ber ; those which are plural in meaning, like both, these, many, 
should be used only with nouns in the plural number. 

The adjective generally stands before the noun which it 
modifies. The pronoun does not admit the adjective before it. 

The specifying adjective the stands before descriptive and 
numeral adjectives modifying the noun ; as, the white house ; 
the two Scipios. But all and both take the after them ; as, 
all the gold; both the men. 

§ 159. The only adjunct which generally 
modifies the noun is that which is introduced by 
the preposition of} as, the roof of the house. 

The adjunct with of is generally equivalent to the possess- 
ive case, and is gradually displacing the possessive. With 
few exceptions, the possessive form is limited to pronouns, 
to proper names, and names of living things. We do not 
say, The house's roof, the tree's bark, the* pencil's tip; but, 
the roof of the house, the bark of the tree, the tip of the 
pencil. 

By the abbreviation of propositions, an adjunct often stands 
in such close relation to a noun, that it is said to modify it, 
when strictly it modities an omitted word. Thus, m the 
phrase, " The man in the moon," the adjunct in the moon is 
really an abbreviation of the clause that is in the moon, and 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 153 

modifies the omitted verb. But speaking concisely, it may 
be said to modify man, because it is a part of a clause which 
modifies man. 

§ 1 60. Clauses modifying nouns are generally 
introduced by a relative pronoun, and are called 
relative clauses. (§127.) They are often equiv- 
alent to an adjective, either descriptive or speci- 
fying. Thus, yonder man, means, the man who 
stands yonder; the honest man, means, the man 
who is honest. 

Relative clauses have two distinct uses. The first is to 
modify by way of restriction, or description. In this sense 
they are the equivalents of adjectives. The second is -to 
add spme fact which might be expressed by an independent 
sentence. 

A relative clause which performs the office of 
an adjective either descriptive or definitive, is 
called a restrictive clause ; as, They who are 
tvise shall shine like stars ; Our Father which 
(who) art in heaven ; the letter which you re- 
ceived ; the lesson which we are to learn ; the 
man to whom you sold it ; the effects for which 
I did the murder. 

A relative clause which simply expresses an 
additional fact is called an accessory clause ; 
as, God, who sits above, is mindful of man. 
General Harrison, who was also military gov- 
ernor, came soon after. His son William, who 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

was a very strong man, caught him as he fell. 
Man, that is mortal, is also fallible. 

The first of the above might be expressed by 
the compound sentence, God sits above and is 
mindful of man. The sentence as given is com- 
plex in form, and compound in meaning. 

The relative clause should stand as near as possible to 
its antecedent, and after it. 

It gives a meaning to his words which is absurd. 

It gives to his words a meaning which is absurd. 

By its position in the first sentence, the clause which is 
absura seems to modify words instead of meaning. The 
second order makes the sense clear. 

" Who ever saw a lady running a sewing-machine at a fair 
who was not handsome ?" 

Place the relative clause in its proper position. 

The antecedent of a relative is very seldom in the posses- 
sive, for the possessive stands before a noun, and the relative 
seems naturally to refer to the nearer noun. 

His servants ye are whom ye obey. In God's bright face 
in whom dwelleth infinite love. 

In modern prose we should read, Ye are servants of him 
whom ye obey. In the bright face of God, in whom, etc. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

MODIFIERS OF THE PRONOUN, ADJECTIVE, ADVERB, AND 

PREPOSITION. 

§ 161." The Pronoun admits four classes 
of modifiers, the Appositive, the Adjective 
the Adjunct, and the Clause. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 155 

The appositive is very common with the pronouns of the 
first and second person ; as, I Paul beseech you. We Con- 
suls are remiss. You rich men know nothing of our burdens. 
You rogue ! You idle fellow ! 

The adjective modifying a pronoun usually stands after 
it; as, You ally them both. This modification is not very 
common. 

The adjunct is rarely used with the pronoun ; as, They of 
the city ; who of you all ? 

The clausal modification of the pronoun differs in nothing 
from the noun modification. 

§ 162. The Adjective may be modified 
by an Adverb, and by an Adjunct, including 
the infinitive, and by a noun used in an adverb- 
ial relation. 

Adverbs modifying adjectives are generally of degree, or 
emphasis,' as, somewhat, rather, excessively. Verbal adjec- 
tives are modified by adverbs of nearly every class. 

The variety of adjuncts admitted by the adjective is very 
great. The verbal adjective may be modified by any prepo- 
sition with its subsequent. Descriptive adjectives are most 
frequently modified by adjuncts whose bases are of, in, to 
and for ; as, eager for pnnise ; desirous of going; useful to 
the fields ; strong in purpose. 

§ 103. The infinitive modifying an adjective is a true 
adjunct, with the preposition to as its base. It is the equiv- 
alent of the Gerund (§ 95), as may be seen below : 

Good to eat, or, good for eating. 

Apt to teach, or, apt in teaching. 

Fair to see, or, fair to the seeing, or, to the sight. 

Anxious to learn, or, anxious for learning. 

Competent to instruct, or, for instructing. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This construction is further explained under the head of 
the Infinitive (§ 181). 

The preposition proper to use after the adjective should 
be carefully noted; as, agreeable to; delighted with; differ- 
ent from ; like to. 

§ 164. Adjectives denoting time, meas- 
ure, distance, and value are modified by a 
noun used adverbially ; as, 

The book is worth a dollar. (Value.) 
He is sixteen years old. (Time.) 
The wall is four feet thick. (Measure.) 
Harrisburg is five miles away. (Distance.) 
. In languages which denote relation by ending, nouns used 
adverbially have the objective form. But in parsing, it is 
enough to say that the adjective is modified by the noun 
expressing value, time, etc. 

The adjectives like, near, and opposite admit a substantive 
modifier; as, like me; near the wall; opposite the house. 
This modification is an abbreviated adjunct. The preposi- 
tion to is often expressed before the noun. The adjective 
may be said to be modified by the noun used adverbially, or 
by an adjunct with the preposition omitted. 

§ 165. The Adverb may be modified by 
other adverbs, chiefly by those denoting empha- 
sis and degree / and by adjuncts ; as, very wisely, 
most kindly, where in the world, never in my 
life. 

The Preposition is nearly related to the 
adverb, and therefore sometimes admits an ad- 
verb as a modifier ; as, just about going, close 
beside him. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 157 

The Conjunction and the Exclamation 

neither modify, nor are modified. 

LESSON XXXV. 

MODIFIERS OF THE VERB. 

§ 166. The "¥erfe admits four classes of 
modifiers; the ©foject, the Adjunct, the 
Ajdvcrfo, and the Clan§e. 

The Object is the substantive complement of 
a verb which does not admit an adjective com- 
plement. (§ 100, 101.) Such a verb is called 
transitive, and the complement is called the 
©Iirect ©toject. 

The direct object, if a personal name, answers the ques- 
tion whom ? if the name of a thing, the question what ? 

A noun used as object has the general form. The relative 
who, and the personal pronouns except it, have a distinct 
form, called the objective case. 

The direct object may simply limit the assertion of the verb, 
or may express what the action asserted accomplishes. 
I saw the sun. I heard a bell. 

These objects simply limit the assertion, and are not af- 
fected by the action. 

He made a boat. He built a house. 

These objects not only limit the verb, but express what 
the action accomplishes. 

§ 167. Besides the direct object, transitive 
verbs admit another complement, which is not 
essential to the sense, but is closely related to 
the action of the verb. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This complement is called the Indirect 
Object, 

. Mr. Green sold a horse. 

The sense of the above is grammatically complete ; but to 
complete still further the history of the transaction, the name 
of the buyer may be added. 

Mr. Green sold my father a horse. 

(The name of the buyer is the indirect object.) 

Pilate sent Jesus to Annas. 

The boy bought his sister an orange. 

The teacher read a story to his pupils. 

Who told you such a story ? 

I will send her a new book. 

When the indirect object stands before the direct, no prep- 
osition is needed ; when it stands after the direct, the prepo- 
sition to or for is generally used before it; as, I gave him 
the book, or, I gave the book to him. 

Care must be taken not to consider all adjuncts with to or 
for as indirect objects. This object is usually personal. 

He sold his wheat for cash. For cash is not an indirect 
object, but the name of the buyer preceded by to would be. 

§168. Some verbs which do. not admit the direct ob- 
ject, admit the indirect; as, This is forme; It seems strange 
to me. 

In the words methinks, methought, and meseems, the me is 
an indirect object, and the subject of the verb is a following 
sentence or clause. 

Methinks I see a fair and lovely child. 

It seems to me that I see, etc. 

The second form is the common prose use. Shakspeare 
wrote, " When it thinks best unto your royal self.'* A mod- 
ern writer would say, " When it seems best." 

Woe worth the day ! Woe is me / 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 159 

The above are examples of the indirect object. Worth is 
an obsolete defective verb in the sense of be. 

When a sentence containing a direct and an indirect ob- 
ject is put into the passive form, the direct object becomes 
the subject, and the indirect object is retained ; as, They 
gave me a book (active form) ; A book was given me (pass- 
ive form). 

§ 169. The infinitive, either with or without a prep- 
osition, is used as the direct object of a verb ; as, Let us try 
to learn. Boys expect to become men. "When do you begin 
to plant ? I dare not go. 

Verbs signifying to appoint, to call, to choose, to name, and 
to make, admit two objects, one of which is direct, and the 
other is a complement of the idea expressed by the verb and 
the first object ; as, 

They called the city Cleveland. 
They made Richard their leader. 

The first object expresses that upon which the action is 
exerted ; the second expresses the result of the action. 

When sentences of this kind assume the passive form, the 
first object becomes the subject, and the second remains as a 
part of the predicate, and has no modifying power ; as, Rich- 
ard was made leader. 

An adjective may form a part of the predicate, and an 
object may be used at the same time, after the verb ; as, 
The streams whereof shall make glad the city of our God. 
Make glad is equivalent to gladden. Changing the sentence 
to the passive form, city becomes the subject and glad re- 
mains as a part of the predicate ; thus, The city of our God 
shall be made glad. 

The verbs ask and teach take two direct objects. Either 
object is used as a subject in the passive form, and the other 
object is retained after the verb. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

They asked me a question. A question was asked me ; 
or, I was asked a question. 

We taught him grammar. He was taught grammar ; or, 
Grammar was taught him. 

§ 1 <T©. The principal differences between the active 
and the passive forms are these. The active form gives 
prominence to the subject ; the passive form makes prominent 
the fact of completion. The active form of a transitive verb 
requires complements ; the passive, except with the verbs 
given above, does not. 

The complement of a verb may be a sentence, a clause, or 
a phrase ; as in the following : 

His only answer was, " You must do it" 

We heard that you had been ill. 

Without raising his head, he said, " To the left" 

§ 171. An abridged clause is sometimes used 
as the complement of a verb ; chiefly with verbs 
denoting thought and sensation. 

An abridged clause, when used as a comple- 
ment or object, omits the connecting word, 
changes the subject, if a pronoun, to the object- 
ive form, and changes the assertive form of the 
verb to the infinitive, or, sometimes, to the gerund. 

OBJECT CLAUSES UNABRIDGED., 

I believe that she is truthful. 
They knew that he was an Italian. 
She felt that these words were true. 
All men wished that the work should go on. 
They heard him that he sang. (This expression is obso- 
lete.) 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 161 

t 

OBJECT CLAUSES ABRIDGED. 

I believe her to be truthful. 

They knew him to be an Italian. 

She felt these words to be true. 

All men wished the work to go on. 

They heard him sing, or, They heard him singing. 

In many common expressions the full form has become 
obsolete, and the abridged is the only proper form ; as, They 
made him tremble. I saw him do it. Hear me say my lesson. 
Let us go. The object in each of these examples is the 
abridged clause ; not the substantive which stands before the 
infinitive. 

The infinitive, then, is used in abridged ob- 
jective clauses instead of the assertive form of 
the verb, and has a subject in the objective form. 

The object clause abridged answers the question what ; as, 
We saw the bird fly. Saw what ? Saw the bird fly. The 
infinitive is a necessary part of the complement. But in the 
sentence, " I shipped the goods to go by steamer/' goods 
answers the question what was shipped ? and the infinitive 
is not needed, except to express an additional fact. To go 
expresses the purpose of the shipper. 

Some verbs generally intransitive admit an object whose 
meaning is like their own ; as, to live a life, to dream a dream, 
to run a race. 

Some intransitive verbs are used in a causative sense, and 
then admit an object. Thus, to dance a child, means to cause 
a child to dance ; to run a horse, means to cause a horse to 
run. So, to fly a kite, to spin a top, to grow grain. 

The verbs lie, sit, rise, and fall, are so often misused that 
they need special attention. All these verbs are intransitive. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Each of them has a causative transitive form, derived by 
changing the vowel ; viz., lay, set, raise, fell. Lay means 
cause to lie. Thus, I lay a book on a table, but the book 
lies on the table. I set the hen ; that is, I cause her to sit, 
but the hen, when set, sits on her eggs. The wood-cutter 
fells the tree ; the tree falls. We raise the ladder ; the lad- 
der rises. 

The verbs lie, rise, and fall, are of the strong conjugation, 
lay, raise, and fell, are of the weak conjugation. 



LESSON XXXVI. 

MODIFIERS OF THE VERB CONTINUED. 

§ 172, 2. An adjunct modifying a verb may- 
have any preposition as a base. Adjuncts ex- 
press Time, Place, Manner, Cause, Assent, Nega- 
tion, and all the relations expressed by adverbs ; 
also the Agent of the action, and the Origin or 
Source. . 

Many adjuncts, like modal adverbs, modify the whole as- 
sertion ; as, Of course, he will go. Without a doubt, he will 
succeed. 

An adjunct often modifies a verb and its modifiers ; as in 
the sentence, " In the beginning, God created the heavens 
and the earth." The adjunct in the beginning modifies not 
simply the verb created, but the whole predicate. Gocl cre- 
ated the heavens and the earth in the beginning. 

§ 173. 3. The Adverb is genex-ally used as 
a modifier of the verb. All modifiers of a terb 
are called by the general name adverbial. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 163 

The adverb is often equivalent to an adjunct ; as, speedily, 
for with speed; emphatically, for with emphasis; soon, for in 
a short time. 

A noun may be used as an adverbial modifier of a verb. 
This modification is used with intransitive verbs to express 
time, quantity, direction, and value. He remained 
a year. The field measures five acres. We are going home. 
He has gone east. This happened last week. Flour costs 
nine dollars a barrel. This horse weighs twelve hundred 
pounds. 

This adverbial modifier originally had the objective form, 
and a noun so used may be called an adverbial objective. 

It may be asked, why not call a noun used adverbially an adverb ? 
Why not call a noun used in apposition an adjective. ? The principal 
reason is that a word is classed according to its general use, and when 
its class-name is once fixed, it is well, when its use in the sentence puts 
it into another class, to recognize in the name applied to it, both its 
general use, and its special use. When we say "An adjective used as 
a noun," we recognize the general use of the word as an adjective, and 
its special use as a noun. 

§ 1 74L Clauses used as modifiers of verbs are princi- 
pally of the following classes : 

1. Temporal, or such as denote time. They are usually 
introduced by an adverb of time ; as, He will hear us when 
we pray. Sometimes a preposition introduces the clause ; as, 
Charles waited till he heard the bell. 

2. Causal, or such as express the reason of some asser- 
tion. They are generally introduced by the causal conjunc- 
tions because and for ; as, He does it, because he can not 
help it. 

3. Inferential, which denote a conclusion from a pre- 
vious sentence ; as, I believed, therefore have I spoken. Then 
and now are sometimes used in inferential clauses ; as, Tell 
me, then, what you mean to do. Now we are satisfied that 
this is an absurdity. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Conditional, or such as denote doubt, or supposition ; 
If it were so, it was a grievous fault. If we are to do it, you 
must let us know to-morrow. If and whether are most fre- 
quently used in conditional clauses. Conditional clauses 
generally modify a whole proposition rather than a verb. 

5. Conce§§ive, or such as admit something, while an 
opposite, or contrasted statement is made ; as, Though you 
oppose me, I will go on. The concessive clause is sometimes 
an imperative whose verb is followed by the conjunction 
that ; as, Grant that this story is true, what does it prove ? 
Tet and still are frequently used in the principal sentence as 
correlatives to though in the concessive clause. 

6. Final, or those which express purpose ; as, It is my 
intention that order be maintained. That and lest most gen- 
erally introduce final clauses. The infinitive is very often 
employed to express purpose. 

In conditional, concessive, and final clauses, the subjunc- 
tive mode (§ 113) is still employed; particularly the forms 
of the verb be. 

§ 175. Temporal and causal clauses are often abridged 
by dropping the connective, and changing the assertive form 
of the verb to the participle; as, Having finished his work, 
for when he had finished his work ; Crossing the river, or, 
having crossed the river, for, when he had crossed the river. 

In such contractions as the above, the subject of the clause 
is the same as that of the leading sentence. The participle 
is then said to refer to the subject, and an assertion is im- 
plied, but not directly made. 

When the subject of the clause is not the same as that of 
the leading sentence, the connective is omitted, and the sub- 
ject remains, with a participle instead of the assertive form ; as, 
When the war was over, the prisoners were released. 
The war being over, the prisoners were released. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 165 

The noun in such clauses is said to be absolute, or used 
without grammatical relation. When a pronoun is the sub- 
ject of such a clause, it retains the form of the subject ; as, 
He having been elected^ the opposition was diminished; instead 
of when he was elected. 

An independent member of a compound sentence is some- 
times shortened into a participial clause; as, Taking a lamp, 
he opened the door, instead of, He took a lamp and opened 
the door. Taking refers to he. 

I knew that he was a soldier. I knew of his being a sol- 
dier, or, of his having been a soldier. 

This form of the participial clause is used when the verb 
be is the verb of the predicate. 

LESSON XXXVIL 

CONSTRUCTION. 

§ 176. By the Construction of a word is 

meant its use in the sentence, and its rela- 
tion to other words. 

A noun or pronoun may be used 

1. As the §ubject of a sentence. The subject noun has 
the general form,and the pronoun the subject form, or nomi- 
native case. 

2. As a modifier denoting the relation of possession. 
This relation is marked by a change of ending, and the form 
which expresses it is called the possessive case. 

3. As an adjective modifier of some other substantive 
which denotes the same person or thing. It is then called an 
appositive of the substantive modified. The pronoun is 
very rarely used in this construction. Proper nouns are 
most frequently modified by an appositive, and personal pro- 



1G6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nouns are often modified, but do not themselves modify. Ai\ 
appositive is in the same relation as the word which it mod- 
ifies. It sometimes modifies a clause, and is used absolutely 
(§ 157). 

4. As direct or indirect object of a verb (§ 101, 
§ 167). The pronoun when thus used has a form called the 
objective form, or case. 

5. As the subsequent of a preposition (§ 144). A 
subsequent pronoun has the objective form. 

6. As the subject of an infinitive in an abridged ob- 
ject clause (§ 171). A pronoun so used has the objective 
form. 

7. As a part of a predicate, as a complement of a verb. 
This substantive complement is employed after intransitive 
verbs, especially after the verb he, and after the passive form. 

He was a sailor. They became merchants. He fell a 
victim. I walk a queen. He died a martyr. It is I. It is 
we. He is made overseer. 

A noun used as the complement of an intransitive verb has 
the general form, and a pronoun so used has the nominative, 
or subject form. In analyzing, say that the substantive is a 
part of the predicate. 

This same construction is used in abridged propositions, 
both after the infinitive and the participle ; as, To he a Ro- 
man was greater than a king. His heing a cripple prevented 
his obtaining the place. The subject in either of these sen- 
tences is the abridged clause. Roman and cripple are a part 
of the implied predicate. A noun so used is often called 
the predicate Nominative, because it has the nominative, or 
general form. This form of the abridged clause may be the 
subsequent of a preposition; as, the atrocious crime of heing 
a young man. 

8. As absolute, with a participle, in an abridged clause. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 167 

This use implies the subject relation, and a substantive so 
used has the subject form. 

9. As absolute, in direct address, when the noun has no 
relation to the sentence, and has the general form. 

10. As an adveirt> 9 modifying adjectives and verbs de- 
noting Time, Quantity, Direction, and Value (§ 165, 173). 

Give the construction of the nouns and pronouns in the 
following : I am Jesus whom thou persecutest. Me he re- 
stored to mine office. We remained a week. The book 
cost a dollar. I made the ground my bed. Hortensius 
died a martyr. O thou that rollest in the heavens above ! 
Whence are thy beams, O sun, thy everlasting light? I 
heard the bell toll on thy funeral day. The Lord sitteth 
king forever. Tell me who you are. Let me be the leader. 
He made a wall nineteen miles long, and a ditch sixteen 
feet deep, He is not a whit better. Your fathers, where 
are they ? Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. The law 
having been broken, the penalty follows. Foot by foot, we 
gained our position. His being a foreigner prevents his 
election. Franklin ,was appointed minister to France. 
Darkness is made light. 

§ 177. The adjective lias two distinct 
offices. 

1. To modify or limit nouns. 

2. To form a predicate with intransitive verbs. 

The adjective when modifying or limiting a noun generally 
stands before the noun. It may be a part of the predicate 
when a pronoun, an infinitive, or any substantive is em- 
ployed as the subject. It is then said to refer to the subject. 

Numerals and a few pronominal adjectives contain the 
idea of number, and must be used with nouns which corres- 
pond to them in number. Nouns which have the same 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

form in both numbers may be modified by singular or by 
plural adjectives ; as, one pair ; three pair. Five yoke of 
oxen. In the expression this ten years, this is singular, be- 
cause one period is implied. 

§ 1 H 8 . The Verb has endings in the second and third 
persons singular of the present tense, and in the second sin- 
gular of the past tense, to show* the person and number of 
the subject. In these forms, the verb is said to agree with 
its subject, and the singular forms should never be used 
with a plural subject, nor a plural form with a singular 
subject. Observe that a word may be singular in form, but 
plural in idea, and that a collective noun (§ 86) may take a 
verb in either form. 

Two times two are four. Two times two is four. Both 
forms are used. The singular form is preferable. 

(For a fall discussion of this expression, see Goold Brown's Gram- 
mar of Grammars ; pp. 587-591.) 

Upwards of a million bushels have been received. Over 
a thousand dollars have been collected. 

Some use the singular verb in the a^>ove, and consider the 
logical subject as an expression for a sum, or a quantity. 
Bushels is the subject of the first sentence, and million is the 
subsequent of of. Bushels upwards of a million is the order 
of the sense. 

§ 1TD. The verb properly stands after its subject, 
except in Interrogative and Imperative sentences, and when 
the sentence is transposed for emphasis, or for meter ; as, 
Ash you why ? Have we changed ? Did you know ? 
Break we our watch up. Go thou. Great is Diana of the 
Ephesians ! Parched was the grass, and blighted was the 
corn. 

Except also conditional clauses, when the conjunction is 
omitted ; as, Were it so, instead of if it were so. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 169 

When the subject is properly a clause standing after the 
verb, it often stands before a verb as an apparent subject. 

The verbs lack, need, and want are sometimes used in the 
simple form instead of the compound ; as, There needs no 
evidence, instead of no evidence is needed. There lacked not 
men of daring, instead of were not lacking. Need often omits 
the ending of the third person singular ; as, He need not go, 
instead of He needs not go. 

The active form is sometimes used instead of the passive . 
as, Wheat sells readily, instead of is sold. No one is to 
blame (to be blamed.) 

§ 18©, When the subject is compound, and the sub- 
stantives composing it are connected by or, or nor, the verb 
agrees with the nearer subject in , person and number ; as, 
You or I am mistaken. (Better, You are mistaken, or I 
am.) Neither the citizens, nor the city pleases him. 

When the three persons are spoken of together, modesty 
on the part of the speaker brings his own name, or the pro- 
noun referring to it, last in order; and respect to the person 
addressed requires that his name should stand first. The 
proper order is second, third, first persons ; as, There is one 
for you, one for your brother, and one for me. 

General truths are always expressed by the present tense. 

He said that the sun is (not was) a fixed star. 

Epicurus taught that happiness is (not was) the chief 
good. 

I told you that we are (not were) Americans. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XXXVIIL 

SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 

§ I 8 II • Although the infinitive and participle are really included 
under the noun, adjective, and verb, it is thought best to give them a 
more complete discussion by themselves. 

The infinitive is the theme, and one of the substantive 
forms of the verb. It admits verbal modifiers, but has noun 
relations. In Saxon it had the ending an, and was never 
preceded by the preposition to. The omission of the prepo- 
sition is still about as common as its use. After the so-called 
auxiliary verbs may, can, must, shall, will ; after bid, dare, 
feel, let, make, see, and several others, it is generally omitted. 

The infinitive in early Saxon had a declension, and the 
case of the indirect object ended in enne, and was preceded 
by the preposition to. This form was used after the great 
majority of verbs, and came in time to be regarded as the 
true infinitive form. The preposition was retained after its 
meaning had entirely disappeared. And even when the in- 
finitive is used as subject, we find to, the preposition appro- 
priate to the indirect object, standing before it. 

§182. The infinitive, then, as it now exists in our 
language, comes from three sources. 

1. From an old nominative and objective form in an, 
which never had a preposition before it. This infinitive is 
used as the direct object of a verb, and sometimes in the 
predicate of an abridged clause; as, do go; may send; let 
us see. 

2. From the old indirect object form, after the preposition 
to. In many cases, the preposition still takes the infinitive 
as a subsequent; as, good to eat, that is, for eating ; a house 
to let, that is, for letting ; glad to hear, that is, at hearing ; 
too late to see him,, 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 171 

3. From the form preceded by to, from a mistaken notion 
that the preposition is a part of the form. In this sense, to 
has no meaning. This form is used as a subject as a direct 
object, and as part of a predicate ; as, to hear is to obey ; to 
err is human, to forgive, divine. This form is even used as 
the subsequent of another preposition ; as about to go. Noth- 
ing should ever stand between the preposition to and the 
following infinitive. To thoroughly comprehend is incorrect. 
The adverb should stand after the verb. 

§ 1 83. * The following are the principal additional uses 
of the infinitive. 

1. To express purpose ; as, Do not stop to play ; that 
is, for the purpose of playing. I flee unto thee to hide me ; 
that is, for the purpose of hiding. I am going to Quincy to 
buy grain. 

2. To express cause ; as, I am glad to know it. We are 
pained to hear of his conduct. 

3. As an adjective modifier, or in the sense of the 
imperfect participle ; as, in the time to come; that incoming 
time. Our kings to be ; that is, future kings. 

4. After as, to express comparison with result. So great 
as to surpass himself; that is, great as the surpassing of him- 
self Who is so wise as to know these things ? That is, 
Who is so wise as the knowing these things would prove 
him to be ? ( To surpass and to know are the subjects of 
omitted verbs.) Also to express result without as ; as, Re- 
member the commandments to do them. He is too old to be 
caught. 

5. As an adjunct, in a great variety of meanings; as, at 
liberty to think, desirous to learn, apt to teach, competent to 
advise, permission to go. 

6. It is used in place of the participle in abridged 
clauses, referring to the subject ; as, To return to our subject, 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that is, returning to our subject. To tell the truth, i did it; 
or, Telling the truth, I did it. Every common -sense man 
has, so to speak, a stereoscopic vision. The phrase 50 to speak 
means speaking thus, and the implied subject is indefinite ; 
one might speak thus. 

7. As a verb predicate of an abridged clause, used as ob- 
ject of a verb, with a subject which is in the objective case; 
as, They knew him to have money. We saw him fall. What 
made him die ? 

8. As a part of a predicate ; as, I am to go.- Who is to 
speak ? He is not to be found. I have to go, (where have 
is used in the sense of am obliged.) 

The Gerund and the Infinitive represent the action of the 
verb in a general sense, without* any distinction of Voice. 
Hence, in the phrases, a house to let, the picture which is 
painting, there is no necessity for using a passive form. 

§ 1 84, The Imperfect Participle in Saxon had the 
ending and, which distinguished it from the Gerund ; but 
both endings in time became ing. The verbal form ending 
in ing has three distinct uses, which may now be distinguished 
by three distinct names. 

1. It stands before a noun as a modifier ; as, a threshing 
machine, running water, a standing army. It is then called a 
Verbal Adjective. 

2. It is used as a Substantive, either as a subject, a com- 
plement, or an adjunct modifier ; as, Your writing looks well. 
Leave wringing of your hands. My brother is going a-hunt- 
ing. I saw him running, that is, in the act of running. It 
is then called a Gerund, 

3. It is used to imply Assertion, in abridged clauses, either 
with a noun absolute in the same clause, or referring to the 
subject or object of the principal sentence, or to some indefi- 
nite word. It is then called a Participle- 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 173 

EXAMPLES. 

1. With a substantive absolute. 

This having been done, they returned in triumph. 
The enemy having received reinforcements, the siege was 
raised. 

Notwithstanding his struggles, he was bound fast. 

His mission having been fulfilled, he returned to Carthage. 

2. Referring to the subject, or object of the principal sen- 
tence. 

Nouns ending (which end) in et are generally Diminutives. 

Having a little leisure, I write to you. 

Finding that the enemy were giving way, he ordered a 
charge. 

They said nothing concerning (which concerned) the elec- 
tion. 

3. Referring to an indefinite subject. 
Touching the Almighty, we can not find him out. 
Speaking plainly, this affair disgraced the nation. 
Making all due allowance, the statement is improbable. 
Respecting your offer, it is not yet time to decide. 

(The so-called prepositions in ing belong here.) 

Care must be taken to distinguish the Gerund from the 
Participle. If the infinitive can be substituted for the form 
in ing, or, if a preposition can stand before it, it is a gerund ; 
as, I saw him running, or, I saw him run ; they found him 
writing, or, they found him a-writing, or, at his writing. 

§ 185. The Perfect Participle is sometimes used as 
a descriptive adjective before a noun ; as, a finished article ; 
an admitted necessity. But it is much more common as a 
predicate adjective; as in the passive form, or as a comple- 
ment of having in a form generally called active, and yet so 
far as the perfect participle is concerned, as much a passive 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

form as any other. Be and have do not differ much in mean- 
ing in the ordinary compound forms of the verb. The Ger- 
man language uses both have and be in making up its com- 
pound tenses. We say, I have been ; a German says, I am 
been. We say either is arrived, or, has arrived, and, in 
either case, the leading idea is completion, not passivity, or 
the suffering something to be done. 

* 

LESSON XXXIX. 

4 

TRANSPOSITION. ANALYSIS. 

§ 18G. The proper order of words in English has 
been already indicated, but a brief review is given. 

The subject and its modifiers stand first in the sentence, 
the verb next, and the complements of the verb last. The 
indirect object without a preposition precedes the direct. 

Descriptive, definitive, and numeral adjectives stand before 
the noun. Except when themselves modified by an adjunct 
which stands after them. 

The adjunct generally stands after the word which it 
modifies. 

The appositive stands after the noun which it modifies ; 
the possessive before. 

Adverbs modifying adjectives precede them. 

Adjective clauses stand directly after the nouns which 
they modify. 

Conditional, temporal, and concessive clauses stand before 
the principal sentence. Also adjuncts denoting time. 

The modal adverb stands before the sentence, or between 
the verb and its infinitive complement ; as, They dare not go. 
Doubtless he will succeed. Certainly it is there. 

The order of subject and predicate is regularly inverted in 
Interrogative and Imperative sentences. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 175 

The order of the sentence is changed for emphasis, for 
euphony, for variety, and, in poetry, for rhyme and meter. 

§ 187. Before analyzing a sentence, it is desirable to 
arrange its parts in their logical order, or, to transpose words. 

EXAMPLES OF TRANSPOSITION. 

* High with the last line scaled her voice, and this 
All in a fiery dawning wild with wind 
That shook her tower, the brothers heard." 
Transposed. — Her voice scaled high with the last line, and 
the brothers heard this in a fiery dawning all wild with wind 
that shook her tower. 

In the costly canopy o'er him set 
Blazed the last diamond of the nameless king. 
Transposed. — The last diamond of the nameless king 
blazed in the costly canbpy set o'er him. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

A complete analysis should embrace every word, and give its relations 
to other words and to the sentence. Written analyses of sentences 
should be required often. They serve as composition, punctuation, 
and spelling exercises, and are too important to be omitted. Pupils 
should be taught to abbreviate their work, so as to save time in writing 
and correcting. Written analyses may be exchanged by the pupils in 
class ; one pupil may read, and the rest may criticise and correct errors. 
When the pupils are reasonably familiar with . analysis, the simpler 
modifications may either be omitted or briefly indicated, and the atten- 
tion directed to obscurer points. 

§ 188. Society has almost always begun in 

inequality, and its tendency is towards equality. 

The above is a compound declarative sentence, consisting 
of two propositions, connected by the conjunction and. So- 
ciety is the first subject ; it is unmodified ; has begun is the 
simple predicate-; has almost always begun in inequality is 
the logical predicate. Has begun is modified by the temporal 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

adverb always, and by the adjunct in inequality, denoting 
place where. Always is modified by the restrictive adverb 
almost. The second subject is tendency ; is towards equality 
is the predicate. The subject is modified by the possessive 
its. Is is the simple predicate, it requires a complement, 
which is the adjunct towards equality. The present tense 
denotes a general truth. The adjunct forms a part of the 
predicate, and does not modify any thing. 

§ 1 89» Parsing or verbal analysis of the same. 

Society, common noun, 3d singular, subj. of the sentence. 

Has, verb, present, 3d singular, weak conj., drops v before 
the ending s, taken with its complement begun forms pres. 
perfect tense. 

Almost, an adverb of degree, modifies always. 

Always, an adverb of time repeated, modifies begun. 

Begun, past part, of strong verb befin, adj. complement of 
has. 

In, a preposition, base of the adjunct. 

Inequality, abstract noun, subsequent of in, and with it 
modifies begun. 

And, copulative conj., connects the two sentences. 

Its, pronoun, 3d singular neuter, stands for society's, pos- 
sessive, modifies tendency. 

Tendency, common noun, 3d singular, subj. of sentence. 

Is, verb from irregular be, intransitive, 3d sing, to corres- 
pond with subj., takes the adjunct following as its comple- 
ment. 

Towards, a preposition, denoting direction. 

Uquality, abstract noun, from adj. equal, subsequent of 
towards. 

§ I©©. Many think this man a patriot; we, 
on the contrary, think him a mere, selfish, time- 
serving politician. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 177 

Many ', pron. adj. mod. omitted noun, subj. of 1st sentence. 

Think, vb., irreg., trans., taking the abr. clause this man a 
patriot as complement. 

This spec, adj., limits man. 

Man, comm. n., subj. of omitted inf. to be. 

A, spec, adj., limits patriot 

Patriot, comm. n., part of the pred. 

We, pers. pro., 1st pers. plu., standing for some, unknown 
noun, subj. of think. 

On, prep., base of adj. on the contrary. 

The, spec, adj., limits contrary. 

Contrary, adj. used as n., subs, of on. The adjunct is 
modal ; mod. the sentence. 

Think, vb. trans., mod. by obj. clause, him (to be) a poli- 
tician. 

A, spec, adj., limits politician. 

Mere, desc. adj., variable, mod. politician. 

Selfish, desc. adj., from n. self, mod. politician. 

Time-serving, comp. desc. adj., made up of n. time, and 
verbal adj. serving, mod. politician. 

Politician, comm. n., part of pred. 

The sentence is compound and complex ; each of the two 
members containing an abridged clause as an object. 

§ 191* A figured verbal analysis, simply pointing out 
the parts of speech, is convenient for brief written exercises ; 
as in the following example. The numbers above the words 
indicate the parts of speech as numbered in § 36. 

4164 1^ 1 2 5 641 

The tower of old Saint Nicholas soared upward to the skies. 

4 4 4161 1 4 16 i t 

Like some huge piece of Nature's make, the growth of centuries. 

Relations of words may also be figured to the eye by any 
method which the teacher may choose to adopt. The best 
way of fixing the different relations of nouns, different offices 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of the infinitive, etc., is to require the pupils to compose, or 
select examples of whatever is to be illustrated, and to present 
them in writing for the criticism of the teacher and the class. 
Thus the teacher may require as the lesson of the day, that 
each of the ten constructions of the noun and pronoun (§176) 
shall be illustrated by two examples, either composed by the 
pupils, or selected from some author. 

It is not recommended, at this stage, to require of the pupil the 
reason of every assertion. Time is really frittered away when a pupil 
who possesses ordinary intelligence, and has been studying language 
for years, is required to tell the reason why he calls the most familiar 
name a noun. This minute common-place analysis belongs to the ele- 
mentary work, and is then important. The teacher should now aim 
to present to the pupil the points which involve most difficulty. 

§ 1 92. A few passages are given with questions de- 
veloping the most important points. 

I sometimes hold it half a sin 
To put in words* the grief I feel. 

For what does it stand ? Of what part of speech is half? 
"What verb corresponds to half, and how is it formed ? (§121). 
Construction of half and of sin ? Construction of to put ? 
Does to have a subsequent, or is it used without meaning ? 
Would in or into be used in prose in this passage ? Illus- 
trate their use by examples and determine when in should 
be used, and when into. What is omitted after grief? 
Verb corresponding to grief? Is feel transitive, or intransi- 
tive? Is any word omitted after grief? 

Go ! leave me, priest ; my soul would be 

Alone with the consoler, Death : 
Far sadder eyes than thine will see 

This crumbling clay yield up its breath. 

How many sentences in the above ? How many imperii- 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 179 

Resentences? Principal parts of go ? of leave? Construc- 
tion of priest? Why is would used in the past tense when 
the speaker is contemplating something in the future ? (§ 109), 
Does alone ever stand before a noun? Construction of 
Death ? Why commenced with a capital ? Of what part of 
speech is far? Compare sad. When is thine used instead 
of thy ? Why is thine employed instead of yourtf What 
does thine limit? Object of will see ? Construction of clay ? 
Of yield ? Of what part of speech is up ? What verb cor- 
responds to breath ? 

LESSON XL. 

FIGURES OP SPEECH. 

§ 193. A Figure of Speech is an inten- 
tional departure from the ordinary form, order, 
construction, or meaning of words. Figures of 
Speech are intended to give emphasis, clearness, 
variety, or beauty. 

They are divided into Figures of Orthography, 
of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. 

§ 194. A figtfre of Orthography is an inten- 
tional mis-spelling of a word. 

Archaism is the spelling of a word after the old form, 
or the use of an obsolete form instead of the modern : as, 
kynge ibr king ; kauphe for coffee ; spake for spoke ; strooh 
for struck. For many examples in a modern poem, see Jean 
Ingelow's " High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire." 

Mimesis is the mimicking of an incorrect pronunciation 
by false spelling ; as, 

Hans Schnitzer hat a vloshipede, 
Von of de newest hint. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 195.. Figures of Etymology are changes 
in the ordinary forms of words by additions, 
omissions, and by separation of parts. 

Aplisere§i§ is the omission of one or more letters at the 
beginning of a word ; as, 'gainst for against ; 'gan for began ; 
His for it is. 

Pro§thesi§ is the prefixing of letters for euphony, or for 
meter ; as, adown for down ; awake for wake. 

Syncope is the omission of letters in the middle of a 
word ; as, e'en for even ; o'er for over ; e'er for ever. Some- 
times in poetry, the* sound is omitted while the letters are 
retained ; as, 

No medicine in the world can do thee good. 

The meter requires medicine to be pronounced as if printed 
med'cine. 

Apocope is the cutting off of final letters ; as, tho 9 for 
though ; th* for the ; v>' for of a' for an. Many modern 
forms come from the ancient by apocope • since languages 
generally tend to shorten their forms. Tho omission of the 
old gerund and infinitive endings, and of the en in the strong 
participle, are examples. 

Paragoge is the addition of a letter or syllable which 
has no significance; as, withouten for without; steepy for 
steep ; steely for steel; mine and thine for my and thy. 

Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels which might 
form a diphthong ; as aeronaut, not aeronaut, orthoepy, not 
orthoepy. 

$ynsere§i& is the opposite of diaeresis ; the uniting of two 
syllables into one ; either in sound without change of form, 
or by syncope ; as, court 'sy for courtesy ; can't for can not ; 
loved for lov-ed. 

Tme§is is the separating of the parts of a compound word 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 181 

by some other word ; as, His thoughts which are to us ward, 
for toward us; on which side so ever I turn my eyes, for 
whichsoever side. 

§ 196. Figures of Syntax are intentional 
variations from the regular grammatical con- 
struction of words. 

Ellipsis is the omission of words essential to the structure 
of the sentence. It is more common in speech than in writ- 
ing, as the looks and gestures of the speaker supply the place 
of omitted words. Words omitted are said to be understood. 
Any member of the sentence may be omitted, even the verb ; 
as, I'll (go) hence to London. My father is wiser than I 
(am.) 

The ellipsis of the infinitive and participle of be is frequent ; 
as, This (being) done, they returned. I consider him (to be) 
an honest man. 

It is inelegant to end a sentence with the preposition to, 
requiring an infinitive subsequent ; as, He did not escape, 
but he tried to. Either express the infinitive, or change the 
order. 

Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words ; as, John he 
said that he would go. I know thee who thou art. The 
emphatic repetition of a word is a kind of pleonasm. An 
apposition may be a pleonasm. A series of nouns in the 
same connection are often summed up in one word ; as, fa- 
ther, mother, children, servants, all were swept to ruin in a 
moment. 

Syllepsis is the use of a word according to the sense, and 
not according to the form of some word to which it refers. 

Philip went down to Samaria and preached Christ unto 
them. 

Them would be it, were it not for the figurative use of 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Samaria for the people of Samaria. The pronoun is used 
according to the sense, not the form. The use of a plural 
form of the verb with a collective noun in the singular is a 
kind of syllepsis. 

Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, or 
of one form for another. The use of the plural you for the 
singular thou is a common example ; also of we for I. In 
poetry, the Adjective and the Adverb are often interchanged. 
The use of a pronoun for a verb is under the same figure ; as, 

"Whom thouest thou, Scot?" 

" If thou thouest him some thrice, it shall not be amiss." 

Hyperbaton, or Tran§po§ition, is a change in the 
lisual order of words. 

" Do they call virtue there forge tfulness ?" for, Do they 
there call forge tfulness virtue 2 

u Wander the wide world over," fox, wander over the wide 
tvorld. 

§ 197. Figures of Rhetoric, also called 
Tropes, are deviations from the ordinary mean- 
ing of words. 

A Simile is a direct comparison of two objects, by way 
of explanation, or of embellishment. It is generally intro- 
duced by like, as, or so, with a correlative in the second mem- 
ber of the comparison. The introductory word is often 
omitted. 

Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth 
them that fear Him. 

The sun is dying like a cloven king 
In his own blood. 

Sunset is burning like the seal of God 
Upon the close of day. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 183 

A Metaphor is a comparison implied, but not expressed ; 
as, God is a rock. His name is a tower of strength. 
A great city lying in its smoke, 
A monster sleeping in its own thick breath. 

An Allegory is a story designed to illustrate some moral 
truth, containing a continued metaphor. 

Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is the best example of an 
allegory carried through an entire work. Many of the Scrip- 
ture parables are allegories. Some fables are metaphors. 

Metonymy is a substitution of one name for another re- 
lated name ; as the name of an author for his works ; an effect 
for a cause ; the container for the thing contained ; the sign 
for the thing signified ; a place for its inhabitants ; the ma- 
terial for the thing made of it ; as, 

We are reading Shakespeare. Gray hairs deserve respect. 
He drank the cup to its dregs. He carried away the palm. 
Hear me, Rome. He drew his steel. 

Synecdoche is the putting of a part for a whole, or a 
whole for a part ; as, a sail for a ship ; a roof for a house ; a 
winter for a year ; bread for food. 

Hyperbole is extravagant metaphor, or a comparison 
beyond all reasonable limits. Cold as Greenland for a severe 
winter day ; light as day, for a clear moonlight night ; waves 
mountain high ; awful, for very ; splendid, for good or ex- 
cellent, are commoi examples of hyperbole. 

Apostrophe is a turning aside from the order of narra- 
tion to address some real or imaginary character ; as in the 
" Fall of Warsaw " the author turns away from his narrative 
with this apostrophe, 

" O righteous Heaven ! ere Freedom found a grave 
Where slept the sword, omnipotent to save ?" 

Personification is the representing an inanimate object, 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or a brute, as endowed with human attributes ; as, " Lazy 
wire !" exclaimed the dial-plate, holding up its hands. " If 
you are satisfied," replied the monkey, "Justice is not." 

Irony is a playful or sarcastic statement of something- 
intended to be taken in a sense exactly opposite ; as one 
says, " Very pleasant," when he means very disagreeable ; 
" Much you know about it," when he means " You know 
nothingiabout it." The intonation of the voice expresses the 
sense to a hearer. 

Onomatopoeia is the use of a word which imitates in 
its sound, a sound which is to be expressed ; as, buzz, whiz, 
rap, clang, hum, murmur ; and such words as moo, bow-wow, 
ding-dong, rub-a-dub. 

Alliteration is the commencing of successive words 
with the same letter ; as, 

Begot by butchers but by bishops bred, 
How high his honor holds his haughty head. 

Many other figures are enumerated, but the above are the 
principal. They should be required as a part of the study 
of the reading-lesson, as important in the meaning of the 
sentence. 

LESSON XLT. 

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

§ 198. Certain significant prefixes and suf- 
fixes are often used in composition of words, 
adding their own meaning to the root with 
which they are compounded. The more im- 
portant are given. 

ANGLO-SAXON SUFFIXES. 

A, a preposition, meaning on, in, or at, sometimes simply 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 185 

prosthesis. Abroad, ashore, afield, afloat, or without meaning, 
awake, arise. 

He signifies over, by ; changes intransitive verbs to trans- 
itive ; gives emphasis to transitive verbs ; and is sometimes 
expletive. 

Ex. 1. Becloud, bedim. 2. Bethink, belie. 3. Bedeck, 
bepraise. 4. Begird, beloved. 

Mi§ signifies wrong, ill, or is simply negative. Mistaken, 
mis-shapen, mistrust. 

Un denotes negation. It is used with many adjectives 
and verbs, and always before participles which admit a neg- 
ative form. Unkind, unman, unknowing, unwept 

With (German wider) denotes against, from ; as, with- 
stand, withhold, withdraw. It has no connection with the 
preposition of the same spelling. 

LATIN PREFIXES. 

§ 199 • A, at>, or at>§ means from, away; as, avert, 

turn away ; abduct, lead away ; abstract, draw .away. 

Ad (changing d into c, f, 1, n, p, and s before those conso- 
nants respectively) means to or at; as, adduce, bring to; 
accede, yield to ; affix, fasten to ; ally, bind to ; annex, tie to ; 
apposition, putting to ; assume, take to ; attract, draw to. 

Ante means before ; as, antediluvian, before the deluge. 

Cireuin means around or about ; as circumjacent, lying 
about. 

Coin (co, co! 9 con, cor) means with or together ; as, 
commingle ; co-partner ; colloquy, talking together ; conjoin ; 
correlative. 

Contra, contro (French counter, means against; 
as, contradict, controvert, counteract. 

De means from or down ; as, depart, descend. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dis or di implies separation; as, disjoin, divert, turn 
aside. 

E or ex (ef ) means out ; as, eject, cast out ; expel, drive 
out ; efface, rub out. 

Extra means over, beyond; as, extraordinary. 

In (il, ini, ir) with verbs, means in, into, or upon; 
with nouns or adjectives it is usually negative ; as, indent, 
illumine, immerse, irradiate ; injustice, immoral, illegal. 

Inter means between or among ; as intermix, intermeddle. 

Ob (oc, of, op) means against or to ; as, obtrude, push 
against; occur, run against; offer, bring to; oppose, put 
against. 

Per means through or by ; as, permeate, flow through ; 
perchance, perhaps. 

Post means after ; as, postpone, put after. 

Pre means before, premeditate, prefix. 

Pro means for, forth, forward ; as, proconsul ; propose, 
put forth ; propel, to push forward. 

Re means back or again ; as, recall, re-establish. 

§e means away or aside ; as, seduce, lead away ; secede, 
withdraw. 

Semi. (Greek Item 5, French demi) means half, as, 
semi-circle. 

Sun (sue, suf, sug, sup, sus) means under ; as, swi- 
terranean; succor, literally running under; suffer, labor 
under ; suggest, put under ; supposition, placing under ; sus- 
pect, look under. 

Super is the opposite of sub ; as, superhuman, super- 
natural. 

Trans means over, across, beyond, or through ; as, trans- 
fer, carry over ; transport, carry across ; transgress, go be- 
yond ; translucent, shining through. 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 187 

GREEK PREFIXES. 

§ 200. Words which contain ch hard, ph, or y except 
at the beginning or end, are usually of Greek origin ; as, 
monarch, physic, synonym. 

A or an has a negative force ; as, acephalous, headless ; 
anarchy, without rule. 

Ant-i means against; as, anti-slavery. 

Apo or apli (Latin ab) means from or away ; as, apos- 
trophe, turning away-; aphceresis, taking away. 

IMa means through ; as, diameter, measure through. 

Epi or epli means upon ; as, epitaph, upon a tomb. 

Hyper (Latin super) means above, over; as, hypercrit- 
ical, over-critical ; hyperbole, overshooting. 

Hyp© (Latin sub) means under ; as, hypothesis, putting 
under. 

Meta means over, beyond ; as, metamorphose* change over. 

Peri means around, as, perimeter ', measure around. 

Syn, §yl, sym (Latin com) means with, or together; as, 
syllable, taking together ; symphony, sounding together ; 
syntax, putting together. 

FRENCH PREFIXES. 

A means to ; as, adieu, to God; alarm (a l'arme), to call 
to arms. 

I>e or d' means of or from; as, deliver, free from; 
D'etroit, of the strait. 

En or em is the Latin in ; sur is the Latin super. 

ENGLISH PREFIXES. 

§ 301. Dom, in a noun, indicates the quality, state* 
condition, or jurisdiction of the primitive; as, freedom, 
martyrdom, wisdom, dukedom, Christendom. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mood, or head denotes existence, quality, or state ; as, 
Godhead, hardihood, boyhood. 

Ness is an abstract (§57) ending, found in about 1300 
nouns. 

Less in adjectives denotes without; as, careless, hopeless. 

Ship nearly equals hood. It expresses abstractly that 
which is implied by its primitive ; as, hardship, partnership. 

The endings ei\ ar, or, ard, art, ster (feminine) an- 
nexed to a verb, denote the agent or doer ; as, baker, beggar, 
sailor, drunkard, braggart, spinster. 

LATIN AND FRENCH SUFFIXES. 

§ 202. The endings or, rix (feminine), eer* ier, ee 
(passive), ent, and ant denote a person connected in some 
way with that action or thing which the root implies; as, 
actor, executrix, auctioneer, brigadier, committee, president, 

servant. 

Cute and cte are diminutives ; animalcule, particle, con- 
venticle. 

Cy, ance, ence. ice, ion, ment, or, ity, ude, and 

ure are abstract endings, sometimes annexed to adjectives, 
sometimes to verbs ; as, inclemency, extravagance, penitence, 
justice, division, judgment, splendor \ nullity, amplitude, tinc- 
ture* 



PEOSODT 



LESSON XLII. 

§ 203. Prosody treats of Accent, Versi- 
fication and Punctuation. 

Accent is a stress of voice laid upon certain 
syllables for euphony, for pointing out the em- 
phatic idea, and to distinguish different uses of 
the same word. 

If all syllables were pronounced with the same force, the 
monotony would be intolerable. The regular succession of 
accents distinguishes verse from prose ; as, 
" And the sheen 7 of their spears 7 was like stars' on the sea'." 

In compound words the accent is on the first part, because 
the emphatic distinction is in the first ; as steam'boat, row-- 
boat. The verb is distinguished from the noun by throwing 
the accent forward. Accent for euphony is common in prose, 
even when a sentence is made up of monosyllables ; as, Give 7 
me the book 7 . 

Every word of more than one syllable has an accent. 
Polysyllables may have two or more accents ; as, ex 7 -po-si 7 - 
tion, un 7 - in-tel- Ii-gi-biT-i-ty. 

§ 2®4. E2mpha§is is that variation of tone, 
of form, or of position in the sentence, by which 
special attention is called to any word. 

It is generally expressed by contrast 5 a louder tone is 
contrasted with the ordinary level of the voice ; in loud pas- 

(189) 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

r 

sages, it is often expressed by dropping the voice ; and gen- 
erally an emphatic word is followed by a pause, to contrast 
a sound with silence. 

Rhythm is a regular succession of accents. 

Verse is made up of sentences rhythmically 
arranged. 

Rhyme is a correspondence of two words in 
final sound with a difference in initial sounds ; 
as plam, main ; Atlantic, gigantic ; unfortunate, 
importunate. It usually occurs at the end of 
verses. 

§ 205. A Verse is a single line in rhythmic 
order. 

Poetry is the language of imagination and 
strong feeling. It is a nobler term than verse. 
The multiplication table can be put into verse, 
but not into poetry. Poetry does not necessarily 
imply rhyme or rhythm, but generally includes 
rhythm. 

Unrhymed rhythmic poetry is called blank 
verse. 

A Canto is a principal division of a long 
poem. 

A Stanza is a regular division of a poem, 
made up of a uniform number of verses, repeated 
.in regular order. It is often erroneously called 
a verse. 

§ 205. A Foot is a combination of an ac- 



COMMON SCHOOL COUliSE. 191 

cented syllable with one or more unaccented 
syllables. The following are the four feet most 
used in English verse : 

1. The Trochee ; an accented syllable fol- 
lowed by an unaccented ; as, 

" Sail' of sat'in, mast' of ce'dar." 

2. The Iambus ; an accented syllable follow- 
ing an unaccented ; as, 

" Thy shores' are em'pires changed' in all' save thee'." 
The iambus is the most common foot in English verse. 
Most of the longer poems of Milton, Pope, Young, Campbell, 
and Byron,' are in ten-syllabled iambic lines. Scott used 
mostly the eight syllabled iambic line. 

3. The Dactyl is a foot composed of an ac- 
cented syllable followed by two unaccented ; as, 

" In' the Aca'dian land', on the shores' of the ba'sin of 
Mi'nas." (The last foot is a trochee.) * 

4. The Auapest is the dactyl reversed; two 
unaccented. syllables followed by an accented ; as, 

"And his co'horts were gleam'ing in pur'ple and gold'." 
The following lines may help to fix the feet in memory. 
The Spondee, which accents every syllable, is rarely found 
in English verse. For long and short, understand accented 
and unaccented. 

" Tro'chee trips' from long' to short' ; 
From long to long, in solemn sort, 
Slow' Spon'dee' stalks', strong' foot', yet ill able 
Ev'er to come' up with Dac'tyl trisyl'lable ; 
Iam'bics march' from short to long' ; 
With a leap' and a bound' the swift An'apests throng'." 



ID 2 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

In a long poem, the same foot is generally used through- 
out, but in short poems, a variety is often found, even in the 
same verse. 

Dactyls are not very common in English verse. Long- 
fellow's Evangeline is in dactyls. Hiawatha is in trochaic 
verse. 

Be careful in reading verse not to accent too strongly, and 
give the sing-song tone, and do not make a rhythm in read- 
ing prose. 

LESSON XLIII. 

PUNCTUATION. 

§ 307. Punctuation treats of the points which are 
used in the division of written language, to develop the sense, 
and show the relations of words. 

The Period (.) is used at the end of a sentence, either 
simple or compound, which is not interrogative, nor exclama- 
tory. 

It is used after any expression regarded as complete, as in 
titles, or headings of chapters, which are regarded as ellipti- 
cal sentences. 

It is also used after abbreviations, and, in writing numbers, 
at the right of the unit's place ; as, Hon. S. A. Douglass, M. 
C. ; Wm. Morgan, Jr. ; 5.055. 

§ 208. The Colon (:) is now seldom used. Its proper 
use is between sentences to show that they are not entirely 
distinct, and yet are but slightly connected. 

It is used principally before a long quotation, after the 
expression as follows, or something of a similar meaning; 
as, He addressed the assembly in the following terms : " Fel- 
low citizens of Tennessee." 

It is also used when a sentence is added to a previous sen- 



COMMON SCHOOL COURSE. 193 

tence as an illustration, without a connecting word ; as, No 
writer can expect always to write his best : good Homer 
sometimes drowses. 

The Semi-colon (;) is used between sentences which 
are independent in meaning, and yet stand connected ; which 
are in similar relation to some other sentence, or which have 
the same form ; as, 

We must not take this for the invention of fancy ; the fact 
is confirmed by a dozen eye-witnesses. 

I have often wished that I could concentrate my mind 
upon one purpose ; that I could direct the energy of my life 
to one pursuit ; that I could conquer my habit of dreaming 
about the future ; and could work in the present time as my 
only certain opportunity. 

A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the pope ; the orphan 
of St. Louis, he became the adopted child of the Republic ; 
in the name of Brutus, he grasped without shame, and wore 
without remorse, the diadem of the Caesars. 

§21©. The Comma (,) is used to separate words, 
phrases, sentences, and clauses, which stand closely con- 
nected, and are in the same relation ; as, in the above sen- 
tence, words, phrases, sentences, and clauses, are all in the 
object relation to separate, and are separated by the comma. 

When only two terms are used, and a co-ordinate conjunc- 
tion is expressed between them, or between the last two of a 
series, no comma is needed, as in the above, or as, He is wise 
and brave. They laughed and shouted. 

A group of words is said to be set off by commas when 
preceded and followed by them. 

If one of two similar terms has a modifier which stands 

after it which does not modify the other, a comma must be 

used between ; as, He came in great haste, and was in great 

terror. He works hard, and earns good wages. If an or- 

9 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

dinary connective is omitted, a comma takes its place ; as, 
His life is dark, desolate. When words are joined in pairs 
by conjunctions, a comma separates the pairs ; as, He may 
be prince or peasant, fool or philosopher, rich or poor, but 
he shall have a shelter. 

An accessory relative clause is always set off by commas ; 
as, God, who knows all things, reads our thoughts. 

Nouns absolute by address are set off by commas ; as, 
" Romans, friends, countrymen, lend me your ears." 

An appositive standing after its noun, with any modifier 
except the article, is generally set off by the comma ; as, 
Franklin, the American philosopher. Rome, the mistress 
of the world. John, the miller. 

An abridged participial clause is set off by the comma ; as, 
Having found our friend, we set out for home. Alexander, 
having conquered the world, wept for more worlds to con- 
quer. 

A subject containing a clause as modifier is generally sepa- 
rated from the predicate by a comma ; as, Wellington, who 
defeated Napoleon at- Waterloo, was born in 1769. 

Adjuncts modifying the predicate are set off by the comma 
when they precede the subject. A short adjunct of time is 
sometimes excepted; as, In 1853, in the village of Barton, a 
singular phenomenon was observed. In winter we slide and 
skate. 

When a word is repeated for emphasis, a comma separates 
the repeated word from the preceding ; as, Now, now is the 
time. Yes, yes. 

A comma takes the place of an omitted word which is 
essential to the sense ; as, To err is human, (and) to forgive, 
(is) divine. 

A modal adverb, adjunct, or clause, is generally separated 
by the comma ; as, Certainly, I will do it with pleasure. Of 
course, this made trouble. If you wish, it can be moved. 



Common school couus::. 195 

A careful study of the punctuation employed by good writers is 
recommended as the best guide for common use. Authorities differ 
widely, particularly in the rules for the use of the comma. Close con- 
nection in sense forbids any point. A long sentence does not require 
a point within it simply because it is long. Heading pauses are no 
sure guide. The sense alone determines. 

§211. The Interrogation Point (? ; the semi-colon 
inverted) is placed after every direct question. A direct 
question means one which requires an answer. If the ques- 
tion is quoted with the form of the verb changed, it is indi- 
rect, and does not require the interrogation point. 

Ex. He said, u Will you venture ?" (Direct.) 

He asked me if I would venture. (Indirect.) 

The Exclamation Point (!) stands after the exclama- 
tory sentence, and after most exclamations ; as, Alas ! what 
folly ! Pshaw ! how absurd ! 

The Apostrophe (') denotes the omission of a letter; 
as, e'er for ever. 

Quotation Points (" ") are used to inclose a passage 
taken from another author or speaker ; as, Solomon hath 
well said, " He that hateth suretyship is sure." 

Single quotation points are used when a quotation stands 
in a quotation ; as, 

" What haste hast thou ? Ride softly ! take thy breath ! 
What bringst thou here? He answered, 'War and 
death.'" 

The Hyphen (-) is used between the parts of a com- 
pound word ; as, ant-hill, red-hot, will-o'-the-wisp. 

It is used at the end of the line when a part of the word 
is carried over to the following line. The syllable should 
never be divided. 

It is also used when syllables are to be made distinct ; as, 
re-elect, instead of reelect ; lti-mi-na-ry, when the design is 
to indicate to the eye the several syllables. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. , 

The Diaeresis is used over a vowel to show that it is not 
in the same syllable as the preceding vowel ; as, cooperate. 
Without the diseresis, the word would be pronounced in 
three syllables. 

The Caret (A) is used in manuscript to denote the 
omission of some word which is inserted above. 

The Star or A§teri§k (*), the Dagger (f), the Double 
Dagger (j), and letters and figures, are used as marks of 
reference. 

The Dash ( — ) is used to denote a sudden interruption 
or transition of sense; as, And thrice — wonderful to tell — 
the image leapt from the ground. Also to denote the omis- 
sion of a word, or a part of a word ; a*, Mr. , of B n. 

Marks of Parenthesis or Curves are used to enclose 
explanations or remarks which are not a part of the sen- 
tence, and might be omitted without affecting the construc- 
tion of the proposition ; as, How many (soldiers) are to fall 
to-night! Upon this, the weights (who had never been ac- 
cused of light conduct) began to urge him forward. 

Dashes often take the place of curves ; as, The indirect 
object in many languages — Latin, for example — is indicated 
by a special case, or ending, called the Dative. 
„ The macron (~) placed over a vowel denotes its long 
sound ; as, ago. 

The Breve ( w ) placed over a vowel denotes its short 
sound; as, level. 



APPENDIX 



USE OF CAPITALS. 

§ 212. 1- Capital letters should be used at the begin- 
ning of each independent sentence. 

1. At the beginning of each proper noun and adjective. 
Common nouns personified are included, and all appellations 
of the Deity, whether noun or adjective. 

3. At the beginning of each noun, adjective, or verb in a 
title ; as of a book, or of a society. 

4. Every line in poetry should commence with a capital. 

5. The pronoun / and the exclamation O are always in 
capitals. 

6. A direct quotation commences with a capital. 

7. Personal pronouns of the second and third persons 
referring to the Almighty are sometimes commenced with a 
capital. This usage is gaining favor, but is not universal. 

8. Capitals are sometimes used at the beginning of an 
emphatic w T ord, instead of putting the whole word into 
italics. 

9. Headings ol chapters, running titles of books, and the 
principal divisions of books* are printed wholly in capitals. 
In advertisements, posters, and other matter designed to at- 
tract special attention, capitals are freely used. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

§ 213. I. Final f, I, and § are doubled in monosyl- 
(197) 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lables when preceded by a vowel; as, stiff] ball, pass. Ex- 
cept if, clef, of, as, gas, has, hi-, is, pus, this, thus, us, was, 
yes, and the third singular of verbs which end in silent e ; as, 
gives. 

II. Other final consonants remain single. Except ebb, 
add, odd, egg, inn, err, burr, butt, buzz, fuzz. 

III. A, li, i, J, It, <j, ii, v, w, x, and y are never 
doubled. C| is always followed by u. 

IV. Monosyllables and words accented on the final sylla- 
ble, which end in a single consonant preceded by a single 
vowel double the fiiatiB consonant on receiving an 
ending which commences with a vowel ; as, bud, budding ; 
commit, committee. 

The double consonant indicates the short sound of the 
preceding vowel. Thus hopping is distinguished from 
hoping by the double consonant. 

Words not accented on the final syllable, ending in a single 
consonant, retain the consonant single on receiving an end- 
ing ; as, pencil, penciling ; offer, offered. 

Usage varies in regard to words ending in el, and a few 
others. Webster follows the above rule. Worcester doubles 
the 1 ; as in traveller, 

V. Final e mute is dropped before an ending which 
commences with a vowel ; as, forc(e)ible. Except after c 
and g to preserve the soft sound, singeing and dyeing to 
distinguish them from singing and dying, and words ending 
in ee and oe ; as, agreeable, shoeing. 

VI. E mute final is retained before an ending which be- 
gins with a consonant ; as, careful. Except duly, truly, 
awful, wholly, judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment. 

VII. Final y preceded by a consonant becomes I on re- 
ceiving an ending which commences with any letter except I ; 
as, merriment, pitiless, pitying. 



APFENDIX. 199 

VIII. Final y preceded by a vowel remains unchanged 
before an ending ; as, chimneys, payment. Except laid, paid, 
-said, staid, daily, gaily (or gayly). 

IX. Compounds are spelled like their primitives, unless 
three letters of the same name come together. When this 
occurs, the letter is dropped, or a hyphen is employed between; 
as, Ross-shire, fully, instead of full- ly. 

Compounds of all and full not written with a hyphen 
drop one 1 ; as, fulfill, always, fearful. 

X. When e and i are a diphthong with the sound of © 
long, at the beginning of a word, or after c or s, e comes 
first ; otherwise, i comes first ; as, either, seize, deceive, grief, 
niece, relieve. Except neither, siege, financier. 

When e and i in a diphthong have any sound other than 
that of e long, e comes first; as, heifer, weight, sleight. 
Except sieve. 

The above rules apply only to English ivords, and do not 
include proper names. It is recommended to fix each rule 
by special spelling lessons, containing a great many ex- 
amples. 

DERIVATION OF SURNAMES. 

§ 21 4. The word Surname means an additional 
name, and is now used to denote the name of the family 
added to the name of the individual. In Bible times, sur- 
names were unfrequent. Many nations at present make little 
use of them. 

Besides their use in distinguishing persons, surnames are 
of interest as giving important facts in the history and deri- 
vation of words. 

Most surnames can be referred to the following classes : 
1. Patronymics ; or names derived from the name of a 
father, or ancestor. English patronymics end in son, and 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

every familiar first name or nick-name has its corresponding 
patronymic. 

Ex. — Adamson, Davidson, Johnson, Peterson, Jackson, 
Wilson = Williamson, Dickson or Dixon — Richardson, 
Anderson == Andrew's son. 

Fitz, a corruption of the French Jils = son, is used as a 
prefix in patronymics ; as, Fitz James, Fitz Maurice. 

Scotch patronymics have the prefix Mac or Mc ; as, Mc- 
Clellan, Macgregor. The Irish prefix is O, said to mean 
grandson. The Welsh prefix the preposition ap, meaning 
of, to the name of the father, and ap, contracting with the 
following name, gives us several patronymics commencing 
with P ; as, Powell, for ap Howell ; Price, for ap Rice. 

2. Surnames of Occupation. Many of these are 
derived from verbs, and end in er. 

Ex. — Baker, Brewer, Cooper, Fowler, Crocker or Potter, 
Miller, Jenner (that is, Joiner), Mason, Smith (from smite) 
and its compounds. 

Some names of this class end in man ; as, Seaman, Water- 
man. 

Feminine surnames of occupation were formed in ster ; as, 
Baxter = Bakester, Brewster, Spinster, and Webster, the 
feminine of Webber == Weaver. 

Obsolete professions give us such names as Arrowsmith == 
Fletcher, Bowyer, Lorimer (bridle-maker), Latimer (Lati- 
ner, that is, interpreter ; one who can talk Latin). 
1 3. Official Title§. Duke, Earl, Knight, Squires, Bishop, 
Dean, Parsons, Clark = Clerk, Sexton — Saxton, Priest, 
Bailey = Bailiff, Pope. Some of these names, such as King 
and Pope, may have been given as nicknames. 

4. Surnames of Locality 9 derived from place of resi- 
dence. Hardly a village in England or JS'ormandy which 
has not originated some surname. Besides these, there are 



APPENDIX. 201 

names of localities of every kind. Two men of the same 
occupation and first name, would readily be distinguished as 
James from the hill, and James from the dale, naturally be- 
coming James Hill and James Dale. 

Ex. — Meadows, Ford,' Park, Bridge = Eriggs, Banks, 
Field, and Wood, with their numerous compounds; Towner, 
Weller, Wellman. 

5. Names derived from Personal Qualities, or 
Peculiarities. Ex. Black, Brown, White, Little, Long, 
Snell (quick), Armstrong, Hardy, Doolittle, Toogood, Roy, 
Reed, and Ro c s = Red. 

6. National Names. English, England, French, Irish, 
Ireland, Scott, Dane or Denis, Switzer, German, Dutcher, 
Walesa W albs = Walsh = Welch, Flanders, Gael or Gale. 

7. Names of Emblems, derived from coats of arms. 
Most of the animals familiar to our ancestors have given 

ns surnames ; as, of quadrupeds, we have Buck, Doe, Hind, 
Hart, Stagg, Lion, Lamb, Kidd, Hogg, Wolfe. Of birds, 
Heron, Hawk, Robin, Jay, Pigeon, Nightingale, Wren. Of 
fishes, Parr, Salmon, Chubb, Herring. 

From other familiar objects likely to be used as emblems, 
we have Sun, Moon, Starr, Rock, Rose, Oakes, Swords, 
Spear. 

There are other sources, but the above are the principal. 
When the pupils are of different nationalities, it is often in- 
teresting to trace the corresponding names through different 
languages. Thus, Schneider = Taylor, Miiller— Miller, Zieg- 
ler = Tyler, Mc Go wan = Carpenter. 

SYNONYMS. 

§ 915. A Synonym is a word equivalent in meaning 
to some other word. 

Words precisely equivalent are called exact synonyms. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

These are uncommon in any language. When a word is 
once agreed upon as the sign of an idea, another word is not 
needed to express the same idea. Still, in taking into our 
language words from different sources, we have a few exact 
synonyms. Hypothesis from the Greek, and supposition from 
the Latin language are examples. But in poetry for rhyme 
and for meter, and in all writing for variety of expression, it 
is convenient to have terms of different sound, different accent, 
and of different length. Thus, falchion, brand, blade, glaive^ 
saber, scimitar, are synonyms of sword ; yet these names are 
not exactly equivalent. 

A falchion is a crooked sword (falx= sickle), a saber is a 
horseman's sword, curved at the point, a blade is a part put 
for the whole, etc. 

Much of the ease and grace of composition depends upon 
the writer's ability to express an idea in terms which are 
exact, and yet not too common-place. Even a familiar truth 
may seem fresh and interesting when expressed in better 
words than usual. It is excellent practice to attempt to re- 
produce the idea of a good w r riter in our own words. 

The most familiar ideas have usually the greatest forms of 
expression. Thus the verb see has , the following approxi- 
mate synonyms: 

Look, view, survey, eye, behold, descry, espy, gaze, stare, 
watch, scan, scrutinize. (There are others which the pupil 
will do well to search out and compare.) 

The above might be separated first into transitive and in- 
transitive, those which take a direct object, and those which 
take an adjunct complement. Look, gaze, and stare require 
the preposition at to follow them. 

Look means properly to direct the sight. One may look, 
but not see. 



APPENDIX. 203 

Gaze means a prolonged steady look. Its opposite is 
glance, which implies a brief look. 

Stare, like gaze, implies a long look, with eyes wide open, 
expressing astonishment or rudeness. Its German equiva- 
lent is to make great eyes. 

View is very nearly the same as see. It comes from the 
French. It generally implies a distinct and somewhat pro- 
longed vision. 

Survey means overlook ; look from above upon any thing, 
and see all its parts. 

Eye means to examine closely. It is emphatic by the 
figure of Metonymy. 

Behold means literally to hold upon. It expresses steady, 
continued looking, like gaze. 

Descry means to see something which had been invisible 
because of distance. 

Espy or spy means to see something which had been con- 
cealed. 

Watch is used chiefly of bodies which are in motion. It 
has the same root as wake, and implies roused and close 
attention. 

Scan and scrutinize mean to observe carefully and criti- 
cally. 

Approximate synonyms of round are circular, annular, 
cylindrical, curvilinear, spherical, globidar, elliptical, oval. 
Let the pupil learn the exact meaning of each. 

Take the, following list of words : 

Speak, say, utter, talk, tell, announce, declare, affirm, as- 
sert, express, discourse, harangue. Give the precise meaning 
of each, add as many synonyms as possible, and write sen- 
tences which contain the several verbs used correctly. Also 
select sentences from standard authors, illustrating the proper 
use. Newspaper authority is often of no value 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAI!. 

The exact meaning of words must generally be sought for 
in Unabridged Dictionaries, which should be in every school 
room. 

Many words find their synonyms in phrases, or in clauses, 
and these admit of endless variety. Thus a historian may 
be a writer of history, a historical writer, one who writes his- 
tort/, an author of a history. 

Pupils may with profit practice the changing of words as 
they read, to secure a ready use of synonyms. It is not to 
be supposed that their changes will always improve upon the 
author's words, but they may improve their own style by the 
exercise. 

A passage from Cicero is' given below, and the same pas- 
sage changed by the. substitution of synonyms. 

" Had I not, by deeply pondering the precepts of philoso- 
phy, and the lessons of the historian and the poet, imbued 
my mind with an early and an intimate conviction that 
nothing in life is worthy of strenuous pursuit but honor and 
renown," etc. 

" Had I not, by careful meditation upon the teachings of 
philosophers, and the instructions of authors of history and 
poetry, early persuaded my reason to the full belief that no 
object in existence is deserving of vigorous endeavor, unless 
it be glory or fame," etc. 

Similar exercises carefully prepared and sharply criticized 
by the class, and by the teacher, are very useVul. 

i 

EXERCISE IN SYNONYMS. 

Difference between love and like ? Between idle and lazy? 
Between plunge and dive ? Between generous and liberal? 
Between education and learning ? Between spot and blem- 
ish ? Between bring and fetch ? Bear and carry ? Under- 



APPENDIX. 2Vo 

stand and comprehend? Tomb and grave? Choose and 
prefer ? Calamity and catastrophe ? Civil and polite ? 
Womanly and womanish ? Conscientious and scrupulous ? 
Frugal and economical ? Hope and expect ? Courage, brav- 
ery, fortitude, heroism ? Hinder and deter ? Export and 
transport ? Knowledge and wisdom ? Droop and drop ? 
Guess and think? Large and big? Usual and general? 
Hate and abhor ? High and tall ? Poetry and poesy ? As- 
semble and convene ? Ally and confederate ? 



INDEX. 



(The numbers refer to the page.) 



Abstract nouns, 58, 90. 

endings, 90. 
Accent defined, 189. 

of compounds, 94. 
Adjectives, 25, 87,132. 

classes of, 28, 132. 

comparison, 26, 135. 

modification, 155. 
Adjuncts, 162. 
Adverbs, 32, 137. 

relations of, 138. 

derived from pronouns, 138. 
Alphabet, 81. 
Allegory, 183. 
Alliteration, 184. 
An or A, 136. 
Analvsis, 33, 65. 

models, 63-65, 175-179. 
Anapest, 191. 
Antecedent, 125. 
Aphaeresis, 180. 
Apocope, 180. 
Apostrophe, use of, 195. 

figure of, 183. 
Apposition, 150. 
Archaism, 179. 
Articles, 136. 
As, relative pronoun, 128. 
Auxiliaries, 141. 

Base of an adjunct, 141. 
Be, forms of, 112. 

Subjunctive forms, 117. 

Capitals, rules for, 197. 
Cardinal numerals, 133. 
Case defined, 94. 
Clause defined, 31. 
kinds of, 163. 
Collective nouns, 90. 
Colon, 192. 



Comma, 193. 

Comparison of adjectives, 56, 135, 

of adverbs, 137. 
Complement of a verb, 104 
Compound words, 86. 

accent of, 86, 189. 
Conjugation, 51, 120. 
Conjunctions, 43, 87. 
'list of, 143. 

classes of, 143. 

correlative, 144. 
Consonants, 82. 

sonant and non-sonant, 83. 
Construction, 165. 

Dactvl, 191. 
Dash, 196. 

Declarative sentences, 60. 
Declension of nouns, 50. 

of pronouns, 126. 
Demonstratives, 131. 
Derivation, 85. 

of verbs, 123. 

of surnames, 199. 
Diaeresis, 196. 
Diminutives, 58, 90. 
Diphthongs, 82. 
Distributives, 131. 

Each other, one another, 132. 
Elements of the sentence, 19. 
Ellipsis, 62, 181. 
Emphasis defined, l v 9. 
Emphatic form of verbs, 110. 
Enallage, 182. 
Errors corrected, 73-76. 
Etymology, 85. 
Euphony, 84. 
Exclamations, 44, 145. 
Exclamatory sentences, 60. 
Expletives, HO. 



08 



INDEX. 



Feminine endings, 98 
Figures of speech, 179. 

plural of, 96. 
Foot denned. 190. 
French prefixes, 187. 

Gender, 95. 
Gerund, 99, 172. 
Grammar defined, 80. 
Greek prefixes, 187. 

Hyperbaton,182. 
Hyperbole, 183. 
Hyphen, 195. 

Iambus, 191. 
Imperative sentences, 62. 
Imperfect participle, 102, 172. 
Infinitive, 56, 104. 

syntax of, 170. 

uses of, 170. 

in abridged clauses, 170. 
Inflection, 47, 91. 
Interrogation point, 195. 
Interrogative sentences, 62. 

pronouns, 39, 128. 
Irony, 184. 
Irregular verbs, 106. 
It, special uses of, 127. 

Labials, 83. 
Language defined, 79. 
Latin prefixes, 185. 
Letter writing, 67. 

date of, 67. 

address, 68. 

conclusion, 70. 

direction, 71. 

models of, 67-73. 
Letters defined, 82. 

classified, 71-73. 
Liquids, 82, 

Metaphor, 183. 
Metonymy, 183. 
Methinks, 119, 158. 
Modal adverbs, 139. 
Modify defined, 25. 
Modifiers, 24, 150-165. 
of nouns, 150. 



Modifiers of pronouns, 154. 

of adjectives, 154. 

of verbs, 157. 
Mode subjunctive, 117. 
Multiplicatives, 133. 

Nominative, 97. 
Nouns defined, 22, 89. 

classes of, 89-91. 

inflection of, 96. 

plural, 98. 

possessive, 50, 98. 

modification of, 150. 

construction of, 165. 
Number, 96. 

Object defined, 97. 

indirect, 158. 
Object clauses, abridged, 161, 
Obsolete words, 88. 
Onomatopoeia, 184. 
Ordinal numerals, 133. 
Orthography, 81. 

rules of, 197. 

Paradigm, 98. 
Paragoge, ISO. 
Parenthesis, 196. 
Parsing, 150. 
Participles, 54, 99. 

in abridged clauses, 161. 

uses of, 172, 173. 
Parts of speech, 22, 87. 
Passive voice, 112, 160. 
Period, 192. 
Person defined, 43. 
Personal pronouns, 36, 126. 

compound, 43, 127. 

declension of, 126. 
Personification, 183. 
Phonic spelling, 84. 
Phrase defined, 149. 
Pleonasm, 181. 
Plural, formation of, 48. 
Poetry defined, 190. 
Positive degree, 57, 134. 
Possessives, 49, 97. 
Predicate, 19, 147. 
Prefixes, Ansrlo-Saxon, 184. 

Latin, 185. 



INDEX. 



209 



Prefixes, Greek, 187. 

French, 187. 
Prepositions, 40, 141. 

list of, 41, 141. 

compounded with verb, 142. 
Primitive words, 85. 
Progressive form of verbs, 114. 
Pronominal adjectives, 131. 
Pronouns, 35, 91, 125. 

classes of, 125. 

declension, 126. 

relative, 45, 128. 

interrogative, 39, 128, 

reciprocal, 132. 
Proposition, 147. 
Prosody, 189. 
Punctuation, 192. 

Quotation points, 195. 

Redundant verbs, 123. 
Relative pronouns, 45, 128. 
Root of a word, 86. 
Rhyme, 175, 190. 
Rhythm, 190. 
Rule denned, 84. 
Rules of spelling, 197. 
for capitals, 97. 

Semi-colon, 194. 
Sentence defined, 19, 146. 

classes of, 59, 147. 

analysis of, 63. 

for analysis, 66. 

analvzed, 64, 174. 
Simile, 182. 
Spelling defined, 84. 

rules of, 197. 
Spondee, 193. 
Strong conjugation, 103. 
Subject, 19, 147. 
Subjunctive mode, 117. 
Subsequent, 141. 
Substantive, 44. 



Suffixes; English, 184. 

Latin and French, 188. 
Superlative degree, 134. 
Surnames, derivation of, 199. 
Syllables, 84 . 
Syllepsis, 181. 
Syncope, 180. 
Synecdoche, 183. 
Synonyms, 201/ 
Syntax, 146. 

Tense, 56, 100. 

That, when preferred 

as relative, 152. 
Title, when pluralized, 97. 
Tmesis, 180. 
Transitive verbs, 104. 
Transposition, 174. 

examples of, 175. 
Trochee, 191. 

Verbs, 98, 106. 

auxiliary, 113. 

causative sense, 161. 

conjugation, 103. 

defective, 106, 125. 

derivation, 123 

emphatic form, 111. 

irregular, 106. 

lists of strong, 120. 

potential form, 111. 

principal parts, 103. 

progressive form, 110. 

progressive passive, 117. 

redundant, 123. 

voice, 112. 
Verse, 190. 
Vowels, 82. 

What, use of, 129. 

Words, 79. 

Weak conjugation, 109. 



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